Search Results (465)

Research on muscle fatigue during dynamic movement using surface electromyography (sEMG) constitutes a significant challenge within biomechanics. Despite a degree of standardization, measurements and their resultant findings continue to attract considerable debate, attributable to factors such as skin impedance, perspiration, and electrode displacement, as well as subjective fatigue perception. Further questions remain regarding signal normalization and the selection of appropriate analytical methodologies. Recent years have witnessed notable progress in dynamic fatigue research, highlighting the limitations of classical metrics (e.g., EMG Median Frequency) and introducing time–frequency methods, such as the wavelet transform (WT), which are better equipped to handle signal non-stationarity. Interest has also expanded to include non-linear metrics (e.g., entropy) and the analysis of multiple signals (EMG, accelerometers, fNIRS, EEG). The inherent complexity of conducting studies under conditions that approximate real-world sporting disciplines requires the consideration of the influence of various confounding factors. The judicious selection of relevant physical activities and the rigorous validation of the measurement apparatus are paramount for the accurate execution of the calculations. Current research is substantially predicated on artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms. The synergistic application of AI with wavelet transform, particularly in the decomposition and extraction of EMG signals, demonstrates efficacy in fatigue detection. Nevertheless, the full realization of these potential mandates requires further investigation into system generalization, the integration of data from multiple sensors, and the standardization of protocols, coupled with the establishment of publicly accessible datasets. This article delineates selected guidelines and challenges pertinent to the planning and execution of research on muscle fatigue in dynamic movement, focusing on activity selection, equipment validation, EMG signal analysis, and AI utilization. Full article

Background: Intervertebral motion is a fundamental aspect of spinal biomechanics, crucial for understanding lumbar spine function, pain mechanisms, and surgical outcomes. Various methods exist for measuring and interpreting it, each with its own advantages, limitations, and specific applications. However, a comprehensive and standard taxonomy of study types for the measurement and interpretation of in vivo intervertebral motion in the lumbar spine is lacking. Objectives: This review aimed to systematically identify, characterise, and categorise the diverse study types deposited in the literature. Eligibility criteria: Only studies in English and of lumbar spine intervertebral motion in living subjects were considered, and only those that employed objective measurement of motion sequences were included. Sources of evidence: A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, CINAHL, and SCOPUS for articles published between January 2000 and October 2025. Charting methods: After removal of duplicates, all studies were subjected to Title and abstract screening, followed by full-text screening of potentially eligible studies. Data selected were charted into tables under the headings: author, year, country, purpose, technology, participants, measurement, interpretation, radiation dosage, and significance of findings. Results: Forty-nine studies were abstracted and are described under 11 study types. These formed a taxonomy constituting the following six categories: normal biomechanical mechanisms, pathological and injury mechanisms, direct kinematic measurement, spinal stabilisation, dynamic radiography, and clinical markers. The resulting taxonomy will serve as a resource for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers by facilitating a more coherent understanding of the field and promoting standardisation in research design and reporting. Full article

This study presents a finite element (FE) investigation of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration in the human lumbar spine (L1–L3 segment). The model, based on CT-derived geometry and isotropic hyperelastic representation of disc tissues, incorporates controlled simplifications, detailed in the limitations section. Degenerative changes were parametrically simulated across healthy, mild, moderate, and severe stages by reducing disc height (up to 60%), nucleus pulposus volume (up to 70%), and adjusting tissue stiffness to reflect dehydration and fibrosis. Displacement-controlled compressive loading was applied to assess von Mises stress distributions, reaction forces, and load transfer mechanisms. Results indicate significant load redistribution: annulus fibrosus stresses increased by up to 175% in severe degeneration, while nucleus pulposus stresses decreased by ~70%, indicating a diminished compressive load-bearing contribution of the nucleus. Model predictions were validated against cadaveric and in vivo data, confirming trends in intradiscal pressure (IDP) reductions (40–70%) and stress elevations. The parametric framework elucidates interactions between geometric and material changes, providing clinicians with insights into degeneration progression and guiding biomedical engineers in implant design and interventions. Full article

Background/Objectives: Cervical degenerative disc disease (DDD) is associated with decreased disc height, spinal arthrosis, decreased spinal stability, neck pain (NP), and increased years living with disability and global disease burden. Methods: A total of 64 patients (19 males, 45 females) between 23 and 77 years (mean age of 49.05 ± 3.34 years) presented to a private practice with NP and disability. Pre-treatment radiographs revealed decreased cervical curvature (ARA C2–C7) measuring −6.18 ± 3.06° (ideal is −42.0°), anterior head translation (Tz C2–C7) measuring 22.03 ± 2.39 mm (ideal is 0 mm), anterior cervical disc height (ADH C2–C7) measuring 3.68 ± 0.20 mm, and posterior cervical disc height (PDH C2–C7) measuring 3.21 ± 0.15 mm. Pre-treatment NP numeric rating scale (NRS) scored 6.66 ± 0.27, and neck disability index (NDI) scored 40.28 ± 1.42%, indicating moderate disability due to NP. Patients were treated using Chiropractic BioPhysics^® (CBP^®) Mirror Image^® spinal rehabilitation for mean values of 37.80 ± 2.44 treatment visits over 19.48 ± 3.89 weeks at a frequency of 2.89 ± 0.45 treatment visits per week. Results: Post-treatment radiographs revealed improvements in ARA C2–C7 to −19.95 ± 3.05°, Tz C2–C7 to 12.11 ± 2.34 mm, ADH C2-C7 to 5.19 ± 0.21 mm, and PDH C2-C7 to 4.36 ± 0.16 mm. Post-treatment patient-reported outcomes showed improvements in NP NRS to 1.52 ± 0.26 and NDI to 12.66 ± 0.96, indicating minimal NP and disability. Conclusions: CBP^® helps improve sagittal cervical spinal alignment and posture, which may help improve cervical disc height and NP and disability in adult patients with cervical DDD. Full article

To provide deeper insights into the complex and multidimensional nature of swimming start performance, the present study aimed to determine its key performance indicators (KPIs) and provide percentile-based reference values for elite junior and adult swimmers. Hence, routine performance analysis data of Swiss junior and senior national team members were analyzed, including multiple European champions, World champions, Olympic medalists and a World record holder (n = 136, age: 18.3 ± 3.6 [13–32] years, World Aquatics swimming points: 761 ± 73 [609–1061]). All kinetic and kinematic variables measured by the instrumented starting block were analyzed, and variables with pairwise correlation > 0.80 were clustered using principal component analysis with orthogonal Varimax rotation, retaining components with Eigenvalue > 1.0 and factor loadings > 0.6. The highest loaded variables of each component were used as independent variables, alongside the variables with low co-variance, to determine KPIs with multiple linear regression analysis. As such, peak and average power (p ≤ 0.05), front horizontal and total vertical peak forces (p ≤ 0.04), timing of peak power and rear horizontal forces (p ≤ 0.02), resultant grab forces and their timing (p ≤ 0.05), center-of-gravity height at take-off (p = 0.03), take-off horizontal and vertical velocity (p = 0.02), resultant entry velocity (p = 0.01), entry time (p < 0.01), distance before the first kick (p < 0.01), maximal swimming depth (p = 0.02) and distance before breaking through the water surface (p < 0.01) showed a significant effect on the dependent variables (15 m start time). In conclusion, swimmers should maximize power and force production peaking earlier and grab forces peaking later during the block phase. They should increase take-off and entry velocities, distance before the first undulating kick, maximal swimming depth and underwater distance. Full article

Purpose: In this systematic review, we compare the effectiveness of high-intensity laser therapy (HILT) and extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) in treating lateral elbow tendinopathy (LET). Methods: A comprehensive search of PubMed, the Cochrane Library, and EMBASE was conducted from database inception to 23 June 2025 to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing the two interventions. The primary outcome was pain intensity (visual analog scale or numeric rating scale). Secondary outcomes included upper-limb disability (qDASH), grip strength (pain-free or maximal), ultrasound-measured common extensor tendon thickness, and safety (adverse events and withdrawals). Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale; the certainty of evidence was rated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Effects were synthesized as SMD (95% CI) using random- or fixed-effects models based on heterogeneity (I²). Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: Four RCTs met the inclusion criteria and 169 participants were included. Methodological quality was moderate, with moderate-quality evidence indicating a significant improvement in short-term and medium-term upper-limb function in favor of HILT (SMD = −0.42; 95% CI: −0.73 to −0.12 and SMD = −0.50; 95% CI: −0.94 to −0.06, respectively). Evidence ranging from low to moderate quality showed no significant differences between the HILT and ESWT groups in terms of short-term or medium-term resting pain (SMD = −0.50; 95% CI: −1.15 to 0.16 and SMD = −0.42; 95% CI: −1.06 to 0.22, respectively), short-term or medium-term activity pain (SMD = −0.38; 95% CI: −1.05 to 0.29 and SMD = −0.73; 95% CI: −1.65 to 0.19, respectively), short-term or medium-term grip strength (SMD = 0.24; 95% CI: −0.20 to 0.67 and SMD = 0.20; 95% CI: −0.16 to 0.55, respectively), or short-term or medium-term common extensor tendon thickness (SMD = 0.04; 95% CI: −0.50 to 0.59 and SMD = −0.00; 95% CI: −0.55 to 0.55, respectively). Conclusions: HILT appears to offer significant benefits in improving upper-limb function at short-term (<1 month) and medium-term (1–3 months) follow-up. Regarding pain, grip strength, and tendon thickness, the pooled effects did not show clear between-group differences. Evidence certainty ranged from low to moderate, demonstrating that trials with a follow-up period beyond 3 months are needed to evaluate long-term efficacy. Systematic review registration number: PROSPERO: CRD420251026387. Full article

The deltoid ligament (DL) is the primary stabilizer of the medial ankle; however, a limited understanding of the functional roles of its various bundles hinders rational surgical decision-making. This study aims to investigate the roles of individual DL bundles in maintaining ankle stability and articular contact pressure and thus seeks to guide decisions on whether reconstruction is required for specific injuries. A validated finite element foot model was used to simulate isolated and multiple deficiencies in the DL bundle. The articular displacements, rotations, and peak talar cartilage contact pressure were evaluated under anterior drawer force and under internal–external rotation, eversion, and plantarflexion–dorsiflexion moments. Compared with the intact model, anterior tibiotalar ligament (ATTL) deficiency resulted in the greatest anterior drawer displacement (increase: 29%). Talonavicular ligament (TNL) deficiency caused the largest internal–external rotation and plantarflexion (increases in external rotation: 69%; in internal rotation: 10%; in plantarflexion: 32%). Tibiocalcaneal ligament (TCL) deficiency caused the largest eversion (increase: 93%). Deep posterior tibiotalar ligament (dPTTL) deficiency caused the largest dorsiflexion (increase: 68%). The maximum talar cartilage contact pressure occurred in the TNL-deficient model under the plantarflexion condition. In conclusion, individual DL bundles exhibit specific functions in terms of controlling multidirectional ankle stability—the ATTL, TNL, TCL, and dPTTL are the primary stabilizers for anterior translation, rotation/plantarflexion, eversion, and dorsiflexion, respectively. These findings provide a biomechanical rationale for personalized surgical strategies. When comprehensive DL reconstruction is not feasible, clinicians can prioritize the reconstruction of specific bundles according to the patient’s instability severity and functional demands across degrees of freedom. Full article

Jones fractures are Zone 2 fractures of the fifth metatarsal. Biomechanical comparisons of fixation strategies for Jones fractures remain limited by the lack of standardized, head-to-head evaluations across major fixation methods. The purpose of this study was to perform a standardized biomechanical comparison of six fixation configurations representing the three primary surgical techniques for Jones fractures and to examine the mechanical factors underlying differences in early construct stability. A synthetic fifth metatarsal model with a simulated Zone 2 fracture was stabilized using lateral plate fixation with different screw configurations, Kirschner wire fixation with or without tension-band wiring, or intramedullary headless screw fixation. All constructs were tested under displacement-controlled cantilever bending, and the force required to reach 1 mm of fracture site displacement was obtained and construct stiffness was calculated. Plate-based fixation demonstrated the highest resistance to bending deformation, followed by intramedullary screw fixation, whereas Kirschner wire-based constructs exhibited the lowest stability. These differences were explained by variations in load-sharing pathways and effective working length among fixation constructs. The addition of tension-band wiring did not result in a measurable improvement in stability compared with Kirschner wire fixation alone, consistent with the dependence of tension-band mechanisms on active muscle loading not represented in the experimental model. These findings provide a unified biomechanical comparison of commonly used fixation constructs for Jones fractures and clarify the mechanical basis for differences in early construct stability. Full article

Understanding how primary structural features and secondary material properties adapt to functional loads is essential to determining their effect on changes in joint biomechanics over time. The objective of this study was to map and correlate spatiotemporal changes in primary structural features, secondary material properties, and dentoalveolar joint (DAJ) stiffness with age in rats subjected to prolonged chewing of soft foods versus hard foods. To probe how loading history shapes the balance between the primary and secondary features, four-week-old rats were fed either a hard-food (HF, N = 25) or soft-food (SF, N = 25) diet for 4, 12, 16, and 20 weeks, and functional imaging of intact mandibular DAJs was performed at 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 weeks. Across this time course, the primary structural determinants of joint function (periodontal ligament (PDL) space, contact area, and alveolar bone socket morphology) and secondary material and microstructural determinants (tissue-level stiffness encoded by bone and cementum volume fractions, pore architecture, and bone microarchitecture) were quantified. As the joints matured, bone and cementum volume fractions increased in both the HF and SF groups but along significantly different trajectories, and these changes correlated with a pronounced decrease in PDL-space from 12 to 16 weeks in both diets. With further aging, older HF rats maintained significantly wider PDL-spaces than SF rats. These evolving physical features were accompanied by an age-dependent significant increase in the contact ratio in the SF group. The DAJ stiffness was significantly greater in SF than HF animals at younger ages, indicating that food hardness-dependent remodeling alters the relative contribution of structural versus material factors to joint function across the life course. At the tissue level, volumetric strains, representing overall volume changes, and von Mises bone strains, representing shape changes, increased with age in HF and SF joints, with volumetric strain rising rapidly from 16 to 20 weeks and von Mises strain increasing sharply from 12 to 16 weeks. Bone in SF animals exhibited higher and more variable strain values than age-matched HF bone, and changes in joint space, degrees of freedom, contact area, and bone strain correlated with joint biomechanics, demonstrating that multiscale functional biomechanics, including bone strain in intact DAJs, are colocalized with anatomy-specific physical effectors. Together, these spatiotemporal shifts in primary (structure/form), and secondary features (material properties and microarchitecture) define divergent mechanobiological pathways for the DAJ and suggest that altered loading histories can bias joints toward early maladaptation and potential degeneration. Full article

Background: Plantar fasciitis is a prevalent musculoskeletal disease characterized by heel pain and functional impairment. Both high-intensity laser therapy (HILT) and extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) have demonstrated efficacy in managing plantar fasciitis; however, their relative effectiveness remains unclear. Purpose: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare the effects of HILT and ESWT for treating plantar fasciitis. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of PubMed, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and Scopus was conducted from inception to 13 July 2025 to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating both interventions. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed the methodological quality of the trials using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. The certainty of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. The primary outcomes of this study were pain intensity and foot function. The visual analog scale (VAS) was used for pain assessment. Foot function was evaluated by the total scores of the Foot Function Index (FFI) and American Orthopedic Foot & Ankle Society Scale (AOFAS) and the activities of daily living (ADL) subscale scores of the Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM). Outcomes were assessed at the end of treatment and during short-, medium-, and long-term follow-ups. The meta-analysis utilized standardized mean differences (SMDs), assessed heterogeneity using the I² test, applied the inverse variance method for pooling continuous variables, and employed a random-effects model because of the variable study methods used across the included articles. Results with p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The I² test was used to objectively measure statistical heterogeneity, with I² ≥ 50% indicating significant heterogeneity. Results: Five RCTs met the inclusion criteria, with methodological quality scores ranging from 6 to 7 on the 10-point PEDro scale. In total, 120 participants received HILT and 116 received ESWT. Regarding pain intensity (VAS), no statistically significant differences were detected between HILT and ESWT at any time point, including short-term morning pain (SMD = −0.11, 95% CI −0.42 to 0.19, p = 0.40), resting pain (SMD = 0.01, 95% CI −0.48 to 0.49, p = 0.05), and activity pain (SMD = −0.08, 95% CI −0.41 to 0.26, p = 0.89), as well as medium-term morning, resting, and activity pain (all p > 0.05). For foot function (FFI), the pooled analysis of all studies showed no significant short-term difference (SMD = 0.37, 95% CI −0.22 to 0.95, p = 0.01; I² = 73%); however, a subsequent sensitivity analysis, which excluded one studyreduced heterogeneity to 0% and revealed a significant short-term advantage of ESWT (SMD = 0.64, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.95, p < 0.01). Medium-term FFI also favored ESWT (SMD = 0.53, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.92, p < 0.01). Overall, the certainty of evidence ranged from moderate to low, mainly due to risk of bias and heterogeneity, as assessed by the GRADE approach. Conclusions: While the pooled results suggested a trend toward greater functional improvement with ESWT than with HILT in the short- and medium-term, the effect sizes were small. No significant between-group differences were observed in pain-related outcomes. Given the limited number of available trials and variability in treatment protocols, current evidence remains insufficient to draw definitive conclusions about the comparative efficacy of ESWT and HILT. Further high-quality, large-scale randomized controlled trials with standardized methodologies are needed to better inform clinical decision-making. Full article

Aim: This study examined how load size and symmetry affect trunk muscle activation patterns, vertical ground reaction forces, and estimated lumbar spine compression during overground walking in individuals with chronic low back pain (CLBP) and those without symptoms. Methods: Thirty male participants (15 with CLBP, 15 controls; ages 23–28 years) performed walking tests under four load conditions: symmetric and asymmetric carriage at 10% and 20% of body weight. Bilateral surface electromyography measured activation from seven trunk muscles (rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, latissimus dorsi, lumbar erector spinae, multifidus) and the thoracolumbar fascia region, normalized to maximum voluntary isometric contractions (%MVIC). Force plates recorded vertical ground reaction forces synchronized with heel-strike events. A repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections was used to analyze the effects of load configuration and magnitude. Results: Asymmetric loading at 20% body weight caused significantly higher peak vertical ground reaction forces compared to symmetric loading (mean difference = 47.3 N, p < 0.001), with a significant interaction between load magnitude and configuration (p = 0.004, ηp² = 0.26). Participants with CLBP showed consistently higher trunk muscle activation throughout the gait cycle (peak: 37% MVIC vs. 30% MVIC in controls; p < 0.001, d = 1.68), with maximum recruitment at shorter muscle lengths and 24% less activation at optimal length (95% CI: 18.2–29.8%). The lumbar erector spinae and multifidus muscles exhibited the highest activation during asymmetric 20% loading in CLBP participants (0.282 and 0.263%MVIC, respectively), indicating compensatory neuromuscular strategies. Conclusion: Asymmetric load carriage creates disproportionately high mechanical and neuromuscular demands, effects that are greatly amplified in individuals with CLBP. These findings support rehabilitation strategies that improve load distribution and restore motor control, thereby reducing compensatory strain and enhancing trunk stability. Full article

Background: Dentofacial anomalies, including malocclusion, emerge from the interplay of genetic, clinical, and environmental determinants. Understanding the factors associated with these anomalies is crucial at the primary care level. Our study aimed to determine the possible associated factors with dentofacial anomalies in patients attended at the primary care level. Methods: A multivariate logistic regression model was applied to a primary care population, with the presence of dentofacial anomalies as the dependent variable. Independent variables included age and selected clinical conditions of dental and neurological origin. Results: Age was inversely associated with dentofacial anomalies (OR = 0.991; 95% CI 0.985–0.998; p = 0.013). Significant clinical factors included vertigo (OR = 2.59; 95% CI 1.42–4.71; p = 0.002), hearing loss (OR = 4.34; 95% CI 2.44–7.72; p < 0.001), trigeminal neuralgia (OR = 8.54; 95% CI 3.22–22.67; p < 0.001), Bell’s palsy (OR = 9.19; 95% CI 4.01–21.04; p < 0.001), caries limited to enamel (OR = 17.92; 95% CI 12.99–24.71; p < 0.001), and acute gingivitis (OR = 10.64; 95% CI 5.61–20.20; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Both oral and neurological conditions showed strong associations with dentofacial anomalies. The model identified key factors that may facilitate early detection and guide the development of targeted preventive strategies in oral health practice and policy, supporting the integration of multidisciplinary approaches to patient care. Full article

Background: Sitting and standing with conventional hip–knee–ankle–foot (HKAF) prostheses are demanding tasks for hip disarticulation (HD) amputees due to the passive nature of current prosthetic hip joints that cannot assist with moment generation. This study developed a sitting and standing control strategy for a motorized hip joint and evaluated whether providing active assistance reduces the intact side demand of these activities. Methods: A dedicated control strategy was developed and implemented for a motorized hip prosthesis (Power Hip) compatible with existing prosthetic knees, feet, and sockets. One HD participant was trained to perform sitting and standing tasks using the Power Hip. Its performance was compared with the participant’s prescribed passive HKAF prosthesis through measurements of ground reaction forces (GRFs), joint moments, and activity durations. GRFs were collected using force plates, kinematics were captured via Theia3D markerless motion capture, and joint moments were computed in Visual3D. Results: The Power Hip enabled more symmetric limb loading and faster stand-to-sit transitions (1.22 ± 0.08 s vs. 2.62 ± 0.41 s), while slightly prolonging sit-to-stand (1.69 ± 0.49 s vs. 1.22 ± 0.40 s) compared to the passive HKAF. The participant exhibited reduced intact-side loading impulses during stand-to-sit (4.97 ± 0.78 N∙s/kg vs. 15.06 ± 2.90 N∙s/kg) and decreased reliance on upper-limb support. Hip moment asymmetries between the intact and prosthetic sides were also reduced during both sit-to-stand (−0.18 ± 0.09 N/kg vs. −0.69 ± 0.67 N/kg) and stand-to-sit transitions (0.77 ± 0.20 N/kg vs. 2.03 ± 0.58 N/kg). Conclusions: The prototype and control strategy demonstrated promising improvements in sitting and standing performance compared to conventional passive prostheses, reducing the physical demand on the intact limb and upper body. Full article

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of coordination training and strength training on the lower extremity inter-segmental coordination during instep kicking for novices. Thirty-two male college students with no soccer-specific training experience participated and were randomly assigned to either a coordination training group, a strength training group, or a kicking training group. Both the coordination and strength training groups also performed the same kicking training as the kicking training group. Each participant executed exercise training three times a week for eight weeks. The instep kicking test was performed before and after the three training sessions. Two-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine the training effects on the kicking performance and the inter-segmental coordination. The maximum ball speed significantly increased for all three training groups (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.638). In contrast, improvements in kicking accuracy were specific to the coordination training group (p = 0.001, effect size = 0.326), with no significant changes observed in the strength (p = 0.052, effect size = 0.138) or kicking groups (p = 0.953, effect size < 0.001). The time spent percentage of the knee-ankle shank-phase coordination pattern in the leg-cocking phase was significantly increased (p = 0.003, effect size = 0.268), but the time spent percentage of the hip-knee thigh-phase in the back swing phase significantly decreased after the three trainings (p = 0.031, effect size = 0.150). A significant reduction in the relative activity of the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles occurred exclusively after coordination training (p = 0.024, effect size = 0.188). This study confirms that coordination training provides a unique contribution to skill acquisition in novices, specifically enhancing kicking accuracy and neuromuscular control, whereas improvements in maximal ball speed were generic to all training types. Full article

Exercise fatigue is a critical factor that compromises athletic performance, increases the risk of musculoskeletal injury, and threatens safety in military and occupational settings. Reliable monitoring of fatigue is therefore essential for optimizing training, preventing injury, and safeguarding long-term health. Biomechanical indicators, including joint kinematics, ground reaction forces, and electromyographic signals, provide valuable insight into the biomechanical manifestations of fatigue. Although traditional laboratory-based methods are accurate, they are costly, cumbersome, and unsuitable for continuous field monitoring. Recent advances in wearable technologies, particularly inertial measurement units (IMUs), insole pressure sensors (IPSs), and surface electromyography (sEMG), enable continuous, noninvasive, and real-time assessment of biomechanical changes during exercise fatigue. This review synthesizes current progress in IMU-, IPS-, and sEMG-based wearable systems for biomechanical exercise fatigue monitoring, highlighting their principles, strengths, and challenges. Full article