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22 pages, 5098 KB  
Article
Optimization of Development Strategies and Injection-Production Parameters in a Fractured-Vuggy Carbonate Reservoir by Considering the Effect of Karst Patterns: Taking C Oilfield in the Tarim Basin as an Example
by Mengqin Li, Qi Wang, Chao Yao, Fangfang Chen, Qinghong Wang and Jing Zhang
Energies 2025, 18(2), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18020319 - 13 Jan 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 752
Abstract
The spatial structural characteristics of fractured-vuggy units vary greatly in different karst patterns, which significantly influence the study of remaining oil distribution patterns in ultra-deep fractured-vuggy reservoirs and the determination of the most efficient development strategies. However, few numerical simulation studies have focused [...] Read more.
The spatial structural characteristics of fractured-vuggy units vary greatly in different karst patterns, which significantly influence the study of remaining oil distribution patterns in ultra-deep fractured-vuggy reservoirs and the determination of the most efficient development strategies. However, few numerical simulation studies have focused on improving water and gas injection in fractured-vuggy reservoirs by considering the effect of karst patterns. By taking a typical fractured-vuggy reservoir in C oilfield in Tarim Basin, China as an example, the development dynamic characteristics of eight typical fractured-vuggy units in three different karst patterns are analyzed, and based on the newly proposed numerical simulation method of fluid vertical equilibrium, the residual oil reservoir distribution in different karst pattern fractured-vuggy units are studied, and the effects of fracture-vuggy karst patterns on the development characteristics, on the remaining oil morphology pattern, on the development strategies, and on the injection-production parameters are explored. This study shows that for different karst patterns fractured-vuggy units, the complexity of spatial structure, reserve scale, and oil-water relationship aggravates the heterogeneity of reservoirs and results in substantial differences in the development of dynamic patterns. In the northern facing karst fractured-vuggy units, there are two main types of remaining oil: well-spacing type and local-blocking type, and the reasonable development strategies are affected by reservoir morphology and the connectivity of structure patterns. Attic-type remaining oil mainly occurs in platform margin overlay and fault-controlled karst fractured-vuggy units. In the southern fault-controlled karst area, the remaining oil is mostly found along the upper part, and periodic gas injection or N2 huff-n-puff is recommended with priority for potential tapping. The fractured-vuggy karst patterns show a significant influence on the optimal level of injection-production parameters for improving the development of gas injection development strategies. The ideas of improving water injection and gas injection for fracture-vuggy reservoirs proposed in this paper also provide a good reference to further improve water control and increase oil production in other similar carbonate reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section H: Geo-Energy)
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19 pages, 14346 KB  
Article
Potential of Low-Cost UAV Photogrammetry for Documenting Hard-to-Access Interior Spaces Through Building Openings
by Marián Marčiš, Marek Fraštia and Katarína Terao Vošková
Heritage 2024, 7(11), 6173-6191; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7110290 - 1 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1748
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are primarily used in the field of cultural heritage for mapping the exteriors of larger objects and documenting the roofs and façades of tall structures that cannot be efficiently or feasibly measured using conventional terrestrial technologies and methods. However, [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are primarily used in the field of cultural heritage for mapping the exteriors of larger objects and documenting the roofs and façades of tall structures that cannot be efficiently or feasibly measured using conventional terrestrial technologies and methods. However, due to the considerable diversity of cultural heritage, there are practical demands for the measurement of complex and inaccessible objects in interior spaces. This article focuses on the use of two different off-the-shelf UAVs for partial photogrammetric reconstruction of the attic of a mining house, which was only visible through a window in the gable wall. Data from both UAVs were compared with each other and with terrestrial laser scanning. Despite the lower quality of the results from the DJI Mini 4 Pro compared to the DJI Mavic 3 Enterprise, the results from both UAVs would still be suitable for documenting the interior attic spaces. However, a detailed analysis of the photogrammetric data indicates that, when selecting a UAV for this purpose, it is necessary to consider the limitations of the camera system, which may lead to a reduction in the geometric accuracy and completeness of the point clouds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Reconstruction of Cultural Heritage and 3D Assets Utilisation)
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17 pages, 10644 KB  
Article
Research on the Green Construction Technology of Stilt Houses Based on the Climate Adaptation of Transitional Seasons
by Ning Zhang, Yunzhu Cai, Yue Jin, Hua Cai, Yingfeng Qin, Wenxuan Li, Yue Ren, Junshi He and Ziyi Liu
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3415; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113415 - 27 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2333
Abstract
Stilt houses are extremely adaptable to terrain and climate. However, current indoor thermal environment research in transitional seasons is not prominent. Therefore, in this research, a typical stilt house in southwest China was chosen as the research object and analyzed by combining Climate [...] Read more.
Stilt houses are extremely adaptable to terrain and climate. However, current indoor thermal environment research in transitional seasons is not prominent. Therefore, in this research, a typical stilt house in southwest China was chosen as the research object and analyzed by combining Climate Consultant climate analysis software and field measurement data. The results showed that the indoor thermal stability of a stilt house was excellent during the transition season, and the attic had the most obvious climate regulation, with the maximum temperature difference between indoors and outdoors being 9 °C when the outdoor temperature was the highest. The difference between the mean radiant temperature and the average air temperature was only 0.04 °C, and the radiant effect of the enclosure on the interior was small. The indoor relative humidity ranged from 63.2% to 85.1%, showing high relative humidity, but the fluctuation was relatively stable. Stilt floors did not play a significant role in climate regulation during the transition season, and the semi-open space structure was more prone to moisture accumulation when the outdoor humidity was high. Regarding practical application, the climate adaptation strategies of shading, cooling, and dehumidification were applied in the transition season, but dehumidification was ineffective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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27 pages, 1459 KB  
Article
Vertical Mental Timeline Is Not Influenced by VisuoSpatial Processing
by Alessia Beracci and Marco Fabbri
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14020184 - 17 Feb 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1574
Abstract
The results examining the direction (bottom-to-top vs. top-to-bottom) of the mental vertical timeline are not conclusive. The visuospatial processing of temporal stimuli along vertical space could influence this time representation. This study aimed to investigate whether and how the visuospatial processing stage modulated [...] Read more.
The results examining the direction (bottom-to-top vs. top-to-bottom) of the mental vertical timeline are not conclusive. The visuospatial processing of temporal stimuli along vertical space could influence this time representation. This study aimed to investigate whether and how the visuospatial processing stage modulated the vertical timeline in an online temporal categorization task. In three studies, Italian university students (N = 150) responded more quickly to words expressing the past with a down arrow key, and more quickly to words expressing the future with an up arrow key, irrespective of whether the words were located in the top, middle, or bottom space (Experiment 1), or were presented downward (from top to bottom; Experiment 2A) or upward (from bottom to top Experiment 2B). These results suggest that the representation of time was not influenced by the visuospatial processing. The daily experience with verticality (e.g., to reach the attic, the lift goes up) could explain the bottom-to-top direction of the mental timeline. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)
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25 pages, 13499 KB  
Article
Mutual Interaction of Daylight and Overheating in the Attic Space in Summer Time
by Dušan Katunský, Marián Vertaľ, Erika Dolníková, Silvia Zozuláková, Kristián Hutkai and Zuzana Dická
Sustainability 2022, 14(23), 15634; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315634 - 24 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2792
Abstract
The classroom space located in the attic of an old building is the subject of this study. The building was renovated and new spaces were created in the unused attic to expand classrooms. The original space under the sloping roof was not used [...] Read more.
The classroom space located in the attic of an old building is the subject of this study. The building was renovated and new spaces were created in the unused attic to expand classrooms. The original space under the sloping roof was not used because its internal headroom was not suitable. During the restoration, the entire original truss was raised gradually (in parts) by 1.2 m. This created a space with an entire area that can be used for classrooms. Continuous strips of vertical windows measuring 860/600 mm were installed in the space which enable a visual connection between the interior space and the exterior. At roof level, there are also two rows of skylights above each other which ensure enough daylight is present but create unpleasant overheating in the summer. The purpose of this study is to find a way to optimize the shading of transparent surfaces and the heat accumulation of building structures in order to achieve suitable interior conditions in the attic. This task was achieved by shading the windows in the attic. Shaded windows decrease illumination by 82% compared to unshaded ones. The percentage decrease in illumination is more significant than the decrease in the maximum temperature due to overheating. Additionally, the maximum temperature in the attic drops by only 31% if vertical and skylight windows are shaded with external blinds compared to unshaded windows. The minimum air temperature reached in the attic also drops by 26%. In order for users in the attic space to feel comfortable, it is necessary to use HVAC equipment in addition to the design of suitably built structures and window shading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Green Building)
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4 pages, 205 KB  
Editorial
Novel Thermal Insulation Materials for Buildings
by Ákos Lakatos
Energies 2022, 15(18), 6713; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186713 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4347
Abstract
Using thermal insulation materials to reduce energy loss in buildings is a key action. For reducing the building’s energy use, firstly, the internal unheated spaces (attics, cellars) should be insulated, followed by the insulation of the external walls, and changing the doors and [...] Read more.
Using thermal insulation materials to reduce energy loss in buildings is a key action. For reducing the building’s energy use, firstly, the internal unheated spaces (attics, cellars) should be insulated, followed by the insulation of the external walls, and changing the doors and windows. Finally, the building can be completed with the renovation/maintenance of its service systems. Newly designed and constructed buildings are subject to increasingly strict regulations, which highlight the minimization and elimination of wasteful energy use and the resulting emissions of harmful substances. Therefore, the use of thermal insulation is the first step in making buildings more energy efficient. In this editorial, seven articles covering thermal insulation possibilities and topics are highlighted. This paper reflected on the use of thermal insulations both for internal and external applications. This editorial also promotes the use of super insulation materials such as aerogels and vacuum insulation panels; furthermore, the possible applications of bio-based insulations are also endorsed. In this paper, the sound insulation capabilities of some materials are also emphasized, and they will be presented from the point of view of cost. Full article
17 pages, 3712 KB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of Airborne Disease Spread in Cage-Free Hen Housing with Multiple Ventilation Options
by Long Chen, Eileen E. Fabian-Wheeler, John M. Cimbala, Daniel Hofstetter and Paul Patterson
Animals 2022, 12(12), 1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12121516 - 10 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3523
Abstract
The current ventilation designs of poultry barns have been present deficiencies with respect to the capacity to protect against disease exposure, especially during epidemic events. An evolution of ventilation options is needed in the egg industry to keep pace with the advancing transition [...] Read more.
The current ventilation designs of poultry barns have been present deficiencies with respect to the capacity to protect against disease exposure, especially during epidemic events. An evolution of ventilation options is needed in the egg industry to keep pace with the advancing transition to cage-free production. In this study, we analyzed the performances of four ventilation schemes for constraining airborne disease spread in a commercial cage-free hen house using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling. In total, four three-dimensional models were developed to compare a standard ventilation configuration (top-wall inlet sidewall exhaust, TISE) with three alternative designs, all with mid-wall inlet and a central vertical exhaust. A one-eighth scale commercial floor-raised hen house with 2365 hens served as the model. Each ventilation configuration simulated airflow and surrogate airborne virus particle spread, assuming the initial virus was introduced from upwind inlets. Simulation outputs predicted the MICE and MIAE models maintained a reduced average bird level at 47% and 24%, respectively, of the standard TISE model, although the MIRE model predicted comparable virus mass fraction levels with TISE. These numerical differences unveiled the critical role of centrally located vertical exhaust in removing contaminated, virus-laden air from the birds housing environment. Moreover, the auxiliary attic space in the MIAE model was beneficial for keeping virus particles above the bird-occupied floor area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Housing and Environment Control Systems in Poultry Production)
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20 pages, 15856 KB  
Article
Simulations of Airflow in the Roof Space of a Gothic Sanctuary Using CFD Models
by Radoslav Ponechal, Peter Krušinský, Peter Kysela and Peter Pisca
Energies 2021, 14(12), 3694; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123694 - 21 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3092
Abstract
For a deep understanding of the airflow in an environment of historic wooden trusses, it is necessary to analyze the object using simulation methods. To calculate the amount of air passing through the structural openings (components) using dynamic simulation, multi-zone network models based [...] Read more.
For a deep understanding of the airflow in an environment of historic wooden trusses, it is necessary to analyze the object using simulation methods. To calculate the amount of air passing through the structural openings (components) using dynamic simulation, multi-zone network models based on the simplicity of modeling the individual zones are suitable. For a more detailed analysis of airflow and temperature distribution within one space, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation model was performed. The air volume through openings and surface temperatures was adopted from the multi-zone airflow network model. By using this simulation technique during a sunny summer day four characteristic states of air movement were simulated in the attic: more intense flow at noon and at midnight caused by a large temperature difference between air and surrounding surfaces and, subsequently, less intense flow when the air was mixed up effectively. The temperature distribution in the cross-sections did not only indicate an increase in temperature with increasing height (up to 50 °C at noon) but also a temperature increase near the southern roof. The surface temperature of the masonry walls was stable (19–33 °C), while the air temperature fluctuated. The image of the flow was completed by ventilation through the tower, which acted as a solar chimney. The airflow through the door to the tower was almost 0.5 m3 s−1 at summer midnight. Full article
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21 pages, 7703 KB  
Article
Danish Dwellings with Cold Attics—Ventilation Rates and Air Exchange between Attic and Dwelling
by Tessa Kvist Hansen
Buildings 2021, 11(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11020064 - 12 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3911
Abstract
Naturally ventilated cold attics are traditional in many Danish single-family homes. The moisture balance of these attics is dependent on sufficient ventilation for removal of excess moisture. Moisture is generated in the dwelling below, and transported to attic spaces through convection and diffusion. [...] Read more.
Naturally ventilated cold attics are traditional in many Danish single-family homes. The moisture balance of these attics is dependent on sufficient ventilation for removal of excess moisture. Moisture is generated in the dwelling below, and transported to attic spaces through convection and diffusion. Therefore, airtight ceilings are vital for reduction of excess moisture, which may yield mould growth in the attic. If mould spores migrate to the dwelling it can cause risk of health concerns for occupants. The presents study includes analysis of tracer gas and temperature/relative humidity measurements, in 30 dwellings/attics. The measurements yielded results of both air change rates in attics and dwellings, as well as air exchange between the two zones. Four of 30 houses, met the recommended air change rate of 0.5 h−1, and only in summer. The air change rate in the attics was found to be higher, and with larger variation compared to the dwelling. Visible mould growth was found in three attics, which all exhibited low air change rates. Air exchange between zones occurred in houses both with and without vapour barriers. The downward air exchange in summer, was however slightly larger in cases without vapour barriers. These results highlight the importance of airtight ceilings for both dwelling and attic performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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18 pages, 4260 KB  
Article
Suitability of Wooden Shingles for Ventilated Roofs: An Evaluation of Ventilation Efficiency
by Günther Kain, Friedrich Idam, Franz Federspiel, Roman Réh and Ľuboš Krišťák
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(18), 6499; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10186499 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4490
Abstract
Wooden shingles are a traditional roofing material on many culturally important building artifacts. Currently, the roof space of many traditional buildings is used for residential purposes and, consequently, cold roof constructions with ventilation layers are applied. In this study, it is evaluated whether [...] Read more.
Wooden shingles are a traditional roofing material on many culturally important building artifacts. Currently, the roof space of many traditional buildings is used for residential purposes and, consequently, cold roof constructions with ventilation layers are applied. In this study, it is evaluated whether the moisture content of wooden shingles is adversely affected by such constructions, compared with unvented shingle roofs over cold attics and whether a temporary closing of the ventilation gaps at the eaves contributes to a lower wood moisture content. Various sensors were installed in and around a building with wooden shingles on a ventilated roof and temperature, air moisture, and air speed in the ventilation layer were measured throughout a year. The findings show that the air speed in the ventilation layer can be adjusted from 0.06 to 0.25 m/s depending on the layout of the eaves. A hygrothermal model was applied to evaluate the effects of different ventilation operation modes and cardinal orientations of the roof on the moisture content of the wooden shingles. The results show that roof ventilation results in a 1% lower shingle moisture content on average than an unventilated roof over a cold attic. Finally, it is shown that the wood moisture content repeatedly reaches dangerous levels above 25% throughout a year, which is worse on north-facing roofs and, hence, measures to increase the dry-out are relevant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Re-Design of the Built Environment)
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27 pages, 3961 KB  
Review
Moisture-Safe Cold Attics in Humid Climates of Europe and North America
by Jan Richter, Kamil Staněk, Jan Tywoniak and Pavel Kopecký
Energies 2020, 13(15), 3856; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13153856 - 28 Jul 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4315
Abstract
During the last few decades, unheated attic spaces (so-called “cold attics”) have been one of the most moisture-problematic spaces in the building practices of Europe and North America. Problems with such spaces are usually associated with condensation, frost formation, and mould growth on [...] Read more.
During the last few decades, unheated attic spaces (so-called “cold attics”) have been one of the most moisture-problematic spaces in the building practices of Europe and North America. Problems with such spaces are usually associated with condensation, frost formation, and mould growth on the lower surfaces of the roof deck. To solve these problems, a number of qualitative studies were performed. Although these studies revealed many important pieces of information, some of them are seemingly not in accordance with one another. Therefore, there has not yet been presented cold attic design which is suitable (especially moisture-safe) for the whole target region. The aim of this paper is to determine whether such a design can be determined or state the reasons why it is not possible. Based on a review of published studies, 38 cold attic designs were selected for detailed analysis. Their comparative parameters were established, quantified, and compared. The moisture-safeness of each design was evaluated using an original approach, and the designs were sorted into groups based on their similarities. Despite many uncertainties, it was found that the criteria for moisture-safe cold attic design in the target region can likely be stated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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24 pages, 5627 KB  
Article
Influence of Roof Windows Area Changes on the Classroom Indoor Climate in the Attic Space: A Case Study
by Erika Dolnikova, Dusan Katunsky, Marian Vertal and Marek Zozulak
Sustainability 2020, 12(12), 5046; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125046 - 20 Jun 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4346
Abstract
Windows are a complex part of building design and provide a considerable benefit, including to school buildings. For the evaluation of the daylighting conditions prevailing in classrooms, the daylight factor (DF) was considered as the most appropriate parameter for indicating the quantity of [...] Read more.
Windows are a complex part of building design and provide a considerable benefit, including to school buildings. For the evaluation of the daylighting conditions prevailing in classrooms, the daylight factor (DF) was considered as the most appropriate parameter for indicating the quantity of admitted daylight. The DF values and CIE overcast sky were calculated using Velux Daylight Visualizer 3 software. The task of the paper is to compare various roof window openings in relation to the level of daylight in the attic, looking to optimize the use of the attic for teaching. The indoor air temperature has a general influence on comfort in the interior, in addition to daylight. In winter, the situation is not critical. The thermal insulation properties of packaging structures are sufficient. The situation is worse in summer, due to the fact that the heat-storage properties are undersized and there is excessive overheating of the indoor air. Four variants of roof windows and their influence on the overall microclimate in the attic are compared. The variant without roof windows is a suitable solution with regard to minimum overheating, but the worst situation for daylight. In order to receive even more light from the window (by moving windows to the top of the roof), we can use variant 2. Based on a combination of daylight calculations and summer temperature, a graphical dependence on window size prediction in terms of top and combined lighting is derived. This was hypothesized without shading the windows. Of course, the shading elements of these windows or cooling are expected in the summer. Finally, the energy required for cooling is compared depending on the size of the windows and achievement of the permissible temperature. Full article
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4 pages, 819 KB  
Proceeding Paper
Thermal and Hygric Inertia and Its Effects on Indoor Air Condition in a Traditional Asturian House: A Field Study
by Susana Lage-Cal, M. B. Folgueras-Díaz and Juan Carlos Luengo-García
Proceedings 2018, 2(23), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2231386 - 29 Nov 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1450
Abstract
Thermal and hygric inertia are determining factors when studying residences habitability, most particularly when no HVAC systems are available. Since the Asturian house under consideration is a listed building that, due to its protection grade, cannot be artificially air-conditioned, such is precisely the [...] Read more.
Thermal and hygric inertia are determining factors when studying residences habitability, most particularly when no HVAC systems are available. Since the Asturian house under consideration is a listed building that, due to its protection grade, cannot be artificially air-conditioned, such is precisely the case. When it was built, living spaces were limited to the ground floor (where social and working activities were to take place) and the first floor (where private family rooms were set). By contrast, the attic was the house store and both the entrance and the stairs were (and still are) passing areas. The results of the field study confirm the adequacy of inner spaces to the purpose they were meant for. Full article
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12 pages, 1366 KB  
Article
Dampness and Moisture Problems in Norwegian Homes
by Rune Becher, Anja Hortemo Høie, Jan Vilhelm Bakke, Sverre Bjørn Holøs and Johan Øvrevik
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(10), 1241; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101241 - 17 Oct 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4391
Abstract
The occurrence of dampness and mold in the indoor environment is associated with respiratory-related disease outcomes. Thus, it is pertinent to know the magnitude of such indoor environment problems to be able to estimate the potential health impact in the population. In the [...] Read more.
The occurrence of dampness and mold in the indoor environment is associated with respiratory-related disease outcomes. Thus, it is pertinent to know the magnitude of such indoor environment problems to be able to estimate the potential health impact in the population. In the present study, the moisture damage in 10,112 Norwegian dwellings was recorded based on building inspection reports. The levels of moisture damage were graded based on a condition class (CC), where CC0 is immaculate and CC1 acceptable (actions not required), while CC2 and CC3 indicate increased levels of damage that requires action. Of the 10,112 dwellings investigated, 3125 had verified moisture or mold damage. This amounts to 31% of the surveyed dwellings. Of these, 27% had CC2 as the worst grade, whereas 4% had CC3 as the worst grade level. The room types and building structures most prone to moisture damage were (in rank order) crawl spaces, basements, un-insulated attics, cooling rooms, and bathrooms. The high proportion of homes with moisture damage indicate a possible risk for respiratory diseases in a relatively large number of individuals, even if only the more extensive moisture damages and those located in rooms where occupants spend the majority of their time would have a significant influence on adverse health effects. Full article
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26 pages, 8156 KB  
Article
The Implications of Climate Zones on the Cost-Optimal Level and Cost-Effectiveness of Building Envelope Energy Renovation and Space Heat Demand Reduction
by Farshid Bonakdar, Angela Sasic Kalagasidis and Krushna Mahapatra
Buildings 2017, 7(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings7020039 - 10 May 2017
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8887
Abstract
The cost-optimal level of energy performance for buildings shall be identified according to the European directive of 2010. The Swedish building stock needs comprehensive knowledge and an overall strategy for the cost-optimal level of renovation. This paper studies the contribution of Swedish climate [...] Read more.
The cost-optimal level of energy performance for buildings shall be identified according to the European directive of 2010. The Swedish building stock needs comprehensive knowledge and an overall strategy for the cost-optimal level of renovation. This paper studies the contribution of Swedish climate zones to the cost-optimal level of renovation on a multi-story residential building in Sweden from the building owner perspective. The building space heat demand is simulated for four Swedish climate zones. The net present profit (NPP) method is defined and used in this study in order to analyze the cost-optimal level and the cost-effective renovation of building envelope components (e.g., attic floor, basement walls, exterior walls and windows). The implication of different discount rates is studied, as well. The results show that the optimum renovation of the building envelope offers 51% more energy savings for space heating when the building is in a northern climate zone compared to a southern zone. The study suggests that different renovation strategies for the building stock renovation need to be identified, separately, for each climate zone. The NPP analysis identifies the minimum required investment and maximum achievable energy savings that are needed to have a cost-effective renovation. The broad range of studied climate zones provides the opportunity to apply the obtained results to other climate zones by either interpolation or extrapolation of NPPs for the buildings with similar characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Refurbishment and Energy Performance)
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