Search Results (329)

Background: Blood flow restriction (BFR) resistance exercise has emerged as a training methodology capable of inducing muscular adaptations comparable to traditional high-load training despite substantially lower mechanical loads. While low-load BFR protocols (20–50% 1RM) are well-established, emerging evidence supports applications across the full loading spectrum, including moderate-to-high loads (>50–90% 1RM), contralateral training effects, and proximal–distal adaptations. In this second installment of the Blood Flow Restriction in Athletic Populations series, we review current evidence on BFR resistance exercise in athletic populations, with emphasis on morphological, neuromuscular, and functional adaptations across diverse application contexts. Methods: A narrative review of research examining BFR resistance exercise in trained and athletic populations was conducted via a PubMed/MEDLINE search. Search terms: (“blood flow restriction” OR “BFR” OR “occlusion training” OR “KAATSU”) AND (“resistance training” OR “resistance exercise” OR “strength training”) AND (“athletes” OR “athletic” OR “trained” OR “elite” OR “sport”) AND (“cross-education” OR “contralateral” OR “cross transfer” OR “proximal” OR “distal”). Studies investigating low-load (20–50% 1RM) and moderate-to-high load (>50% 1RM) protocols, contralateral cross-education effects, and proximal–distal adaptations were evaluated. Primary outcomes included muscle hypertrophy, strength, power, and sport-specific performance measures. Results: Low-load BFR resistance exercise has been shown to produce significant improvements in muscle hypertrophy and strength gains over 4–12 week interventions compared to low-load control conditions. Moderate-to-high load BFR enhanced barbell velocity and power output, particularly at loads > 80% 1RM with intermittent inflation protocols. Contralateral and cross-transfer effects of BFR training demonstrate variable efficacy across muscle groups, with the most consistent evidence supporting cross-transfer enhancement of training adaptations when BFR is applied to one body region while exercising another. Proximal BFR application induced adaptations in both proximal and distal musculature, suggesting systemic mechanisms beyond local vascular restriction. Conclusions: BFR resistance exercise represents a versatile training modality producing meaningful morphological and neuromuscular adaptations across the loading spectrum. Contralateral and proximal–distal effects expand practical applications for injury rehabilitation and targeted adaptation. These findings support BFR integration within periodized training programs when mechanical load management is prioritized. Full article

Background: Blood flow restriction (BFR) training induces morphological and neuromuscular adaptations using low-intensity exercise (20–40% 1RM), offering a reduced mechanical load alternative to traditional high-load resistance training. Safe and effective implementation, however, requires a clear understanding of physiological mechanisms, contraindications, and pressure determination methodologies. In this three-part series, we provide a comprehensive review of BFR for athletic populations and provide strength and conditioning coaches with a structured framework for screening, safety, and methodological considerations to support BFR integration in high-performance settings. Methods: A narrative review of the literature examining BFR safety, contraindication screening, adverse event reporting, and occlusion pressure determination was conducted using a PubMed and MEDLINE search. Search terms included combinations of (“blood flow restriction” OR “BFR” OR “occlusion training” OR “KAATSU”) AND (“safety” OR “contraindications” OR “risk stratification”) AND (“arterial occlusion pressure” OR “limb occlusion pressure” OR “occlusion pressure” OR “Doppler” OR “handheld Doppler” OR “pulse oximetry” OR “cuff width” OR “capillary refill time” OR “monitoring”). Studies examining contraindication screening systems, arterial occlusion pressure calculation methods, and real-time monitoring protocols were evaluated. Primary considerations included risk stratification frameworks, pressure determination accuracy, and control parameter validation for ensuring vascular safety during application. Results: Risk stratification systems can effectively identify absolute and relative contraindications requiring medical clearance prior to BFR use. Epidemiological data indicate that adverse events are transient and non-serious, while serious events appear rare when evidence-informed protocols are applied. Doppler-based assessment remains a criterion approach for determining inflation pressure, although validated estimation methods using limb circumference and systolic blood pressure offer a pragmatic and comparable alternative for applied environments. Inflation pressures of 50–80% arterial occlusion, adjusted for cuff width, produce effective and safe stimulus. Real-time monitoring through capillary refill time, pulse strength palpation, and skin coloration can support iterative pressure optimization and help identify excessive restriction pressures. Conclusions: BFR implementation in athletic populations requires systematic screening protocols, individualized inflation pressure determination using validated methods, and real-time monitoring parameters. These foundations provide the essential safety infrastructure required before progressing to specific training applications across resistance, cardiovascular, and other performance and rehabilitation modalities. Full article

Cerebral ischemic stroke is caused by impaired blood flow to the brain parenchyma due to acute vessel occlusion. Although current therapies focusing on rapid restoration of blood flow achieve high rates of recanalization, outcomes remain unfavorable in a significant proportion of patients. Part of this discrepancy is due to intravascular inflammation driven by thrombo-inflammatory mechanisms that add to cerebral tissue loss. Despite being an inevitable consequence of vessel occlusion, altered shear stress remains largely overlooked as a contributor to endothelial dysfunction in stroke. To directly assess the impact of disturbed flow on the endothelial phenotype, human brain endothelial cells were cultured under controlled flow conditions using an ibidi pump system and exposed to flow alternating in both magnitude and direction. Subsequently, the expression of key endothelial proteins, including Claudin-5, PECAM-1, CD62e and endoglin, was analyzed. We show here that the sequence of shear-stress modulation, recapitulating the hemodynamic conditions of large-vessel occlusion and subsequent reperfusion in stroke, is sufficient to cause an inflammatory phenotype in human brain endothelial cells. In addition, we demonstrate that platelet activation induces the mechanosensors Piezo1 and syndecan-1, sensitizing brain endothelial cells to shear-stress alterations characteristic of ischemic stroke. Targeting shear-stress-mediated inflammatory activation of the brain endothelium may therefore offer a complementary strategy in stroke therapy, particularly in large-vessel occlusion with abrupt flow changes. Full article

Objective: Vascular function serves as an early indicator of cardiovascular (CV) risk. The intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been reported to improve arterial properties and reduce CV risk, but evidence in healthy individuals remains limited. This study investigated the effects of consuming n-3 PUFAs-enriched chicken meat on vascular reactivity at both microvascular and macrovascular levels in healthy young adults. Materials and Methods: In this placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized interventional trial (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05725486), 39 participants (aged 20–26 years) were assigned to either the Control group (n = 20; approximately 118 mg n-3 PUFAs/day) or the n-3 PUFA group (n = 19; approximately 1500 mg n-3 PUFAs/day) for three weeks. Microvascular reactivity was assessed via post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH), acetylcholine-induced dilation (AChID), local thermal hyperemia (LTH), and sodium nitroprusside-induced (SNPID) responses. Macrovascular reactivity was measured by brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and nitroglycerine-mediated dilation (NTG-MD). Body composition and blood pressure (BP) were recorded before and after the intervention. Results: Both microvascular (PORH, AChID, and LTH) and macrovascular (FMD) endothelium-dependent vasodilation increased in the n-3 PUFAs group following the dietary protocol compared to the Control group. Conversely, the three-week dietary intervention did not influence endothelium-independent dilation in either the microvasculature (SNPID) or macrovasculature (NTG-MD) within the groups compared to baseline, nor were any differences observed between the groups. No significant changes were noted in BP or body composition after either diet. Conclusions: In healthy young adults, consuming the n-3 PUFAs-enriched chicken meat for three weeks improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation in both micro- and macrocirculation, without affecting endothelium-independent responses. These findings suggest that dietary n-3 PUFA intake may provide vascular benefits even in healthy, disease-free individuals at rest. Full article

Exosomes (EXs) mediate intercellular communication in the tissue microenvironment. We previously demonstrated that endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes (EPC-EXs) from exercised mice protect neurons and cerebral endothelial cells from hypoxia- and hypertension- induced injury ex vivo, suggesting their therapeutic potential in hypertensive ischemic injury. Here, we investigated whether exercise-conditioned EPC-EXs (ET-EPC-EXs) confer protection against acute ischemic injury. Hypertensive transgenic mice were divided into donor and recipient groups. Donor mice underwent treadmill exercise to generate ET-EPC-EXs. Recipient mice was subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion and received ET-EPC-EXs via tail vein injection (2 × 10⁸/100 μL saline) two hours after stroke onset. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was assessed, and brains were collected on day two for histological and molecular analyses. Our data showed that ET-EPC-EXs were robustly taken up by cerebral cells, predominantly in the penumbra in the ipsilateral hemisphere. ET-EPC-EXs reduced cell death and microglia activation and restored tight-junction proteins. Moreover, ET-EPC-EX treatment preserved CBF and improved sensorimotor function on day two post-stroke. Mechanistically, ET-EPC-EXs suppressed p38 activation, accompanied by reduced matrix metalloproteinase-3 and cytochrome c levels in the ipsilateral brain. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that EPC-EXs from exercise mice improve sensorimotor functions and confer protection in hypertensive ischemic brain injury, likely through attenuation of neuroinflammation and preservation of vascular integrity via modulation of the p38 signaling. Full article

This study presents a modular and scalable wearable functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) system for high-resolution cerebral hemodynamic signal acquisition. The system is based on compact optoelectronic modules and supports mixed measurements using short-separation and long-separation channels, offering good scalability and spatial adaptability. The integrated quartz light guide structure improves optical coupling efficiency between the probe and scalp. A series of in vivo experiments validated system performance. In a forearm arterial occlusion experiment, the system accurately captured concentration changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin during blood flow blockade and reperfusion, with large effect sizes (Cohen’s d > 0.9). In a prefrontal cortex Valsalva experiment, the biphasic response characteristic of neurovascular coupling was successfully resolved. In a 2-back working memory task, the system identified a task-related frequency component (0.0227 Hz) and right-lateralized prefrontal cortex activation (p = 0.023). These results demonstrate that the system exhibits a good signal-to-noise ratio and temporal dynamic response, enabling high-resolution mapping of regional hemodynamic changes. This work provides an effective solution for the development of wearable, modular, and high-precision multi-channel fNIRS systems. Full article

Background: The prevalence of chronic total occlusion (CTO) lesions is as high as 30% in patients undergoing coronary angiography (CAG). Some CTO patients do not undergo revascularization due to procedural complexity and high risks. This study aimed to investigate the value of cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) SPECT dynamic myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) for risk stratification and prognosis assessment in patients with coronary CTO. Methods: This study retrospectively included 62 patients who underwent CZT SPECT dynamic MPI examination and were diagnosed with CTO by angiography. The primary endpoint was major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs), defined as cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, hospitalization for heart failure, late coronary revascularization, or hospitalization for unstable angina. Results: Over a median follow-up of 17 months (IQR 11–23), 15 MACEs occurred. The stress myocardial blood flow (sMBF) and coronary flow reserve (CFR) in the CTO territory were significantly lower in the MACEs group compared to the non-MACEs group (all p < 0.05). Receiver operating characteristic analysis determined the optimal cut-off values for predicting MACEs as sMBF < 0.75 (sensitivity 78.7%, specificity 73.3%, AUC = 0.74, p < 0.05) and CFR < 1.39 (sensitivity 70.2%, specificity 80.0%, AUC = 0.75, p < 0.01). Kaplan–Meier survival analysis showed that patients with impaired sMBF (p < 0.001) or impaired CFR (p < 0.01), defined by these cut-off values, had significantly worse clinical outcomes. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that sMBF and CFR obtained from CZT SPECT dynamic MPI provide valuable prognostic prediction for patients with coronary CTO lesions, offering critical evidence for identifying high-risk patients requiring active intervention. Full article

Background/Objectives: The transradial approach is widely used for vascular access in many disciplines. Radial artery occlusion (RAO) is a frequent sequel, and hand/arm pain affects 7.8% of patients. We aimed to elucidate whether RAO or ulnar artery occlusion (UAO) causes impaired neural blood flow and, thus, if symptoms may be attributable to claudication or nerve damage. Methods: Forty healthy volunteers (73% female), with a mean age of 38 years and without clinical or sonographic signs of carpal tunnel syndrome, were included. All underwent a standardized ultrasound examination (Aplio i800 and i22LH8 linear transducer, Canon Medical Systems) of the forearm, investigating the median nerve and its intraneural blood flow as well as the vascular status of the limb. The radial and ulnar arteries were then sequentially compressed, while changes to intraneural blood flow were noted. Thereafter, the (reverse) Barbeau test and the (inverse) modified Allen Test (MAT) were performed. Results: Simulated RAO and UAO halted intraneural blood flow in 65% and 62.5% of individuals, respectively. A total of 32.5% of participants reported discomfort in the hand/arm. Absent flow during occlusion was found at a significantly higher rate in symptomatic individuals. MAT and inverse MAT were abnormal (>10 s) in 17.5% and 7.5% of patients. Barbeau and reverse Barbeau produced type D results in 15% and 20%, respectively. Conclusions: Both simulated RAO and UAO caused the cessation of intraneural blood flow of the median nerve in two-thirds of participants, and a large proportion reported symptoms. MAT and Barbeau tests did not seem to be useful in predicting impaired neural blood flow. Full article

Obesity is a major risk factor for both venous and arterial thrombosis, largely mediated by chronic oxidative stress and hemostatic dysregulation. Excess adipose tissue enhances the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from adipocytes and infiltrating macrophages, leading to lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation, reduced antioxidant capacity, and a pro-inflammatory milieu. These molecular alterations promote endothelial dysfunction, platelet hyperreactivity, hypercoagulability, and impaired fibrinolysis, creating a systemic prothrombotic state. Traditional coagulation assays provide limited insight into the dynamic process of thrombus formation under physiological flow. The Total Thrombus-Formation Analysis System (T-TAS) offers a microfluidic, flow-based platform that evaluates thrombus formation in whole blood under controlled shear conditions using collagen- or tissue factor-coated chips. T-TAS parameters, such as time to occlusion, area under the curve (AUC), and pressure kinetics, integrate platelet function, coagulation, and thrombus stability, providing a sensitive assessment of prothrombotic phenotypes. Combining oxidative stress biomarkers (e.g., malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, and total antioxidant capacity) with T-TAS-derived functional readouts enables a multidimensional evaluation of thrombosis risk in obese individuals. This review highlights current evidence linking obesity-induced oxidative stress to hemostatic disturbances and illustrates the translational potential of the T-TAS for mechanistic studies and clinical risk stratification. Understanding the interplay between redox imbalance and thrombus formation under flow conditions may inform novel therapeutic strategies to prevent obesity-related thromboembolic events. Full article

Background: Plasma fibrinogen (FIB) levels exhibit a significant elevation during the acute phase of ischemic stroke (IS), and their dynamic fluctuations serve as important biomarkers for stroke onset, disease progression, and long-term prognosis. Tong-Qiao-Huo-Xue Decoction (TQHXD) is highly effective in treating blood stasis syndromes affecting the head and face. Nevertheless, the association between TQHXD and FIB in the underlying mechanism of treating IS warrants further investigation. Methods: Proteomics analysis predicted the potential therapeutic targets of TQHXD for IS. An in vivo model of middle cerebral artery occlusion followed by reperfusion (MCAO/R) was created in mice. To explore the interaction between FIB and NLRP3, as well as to verify the particular healing outcomes of TQHXD. Results: An increased blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability was observed after MCAO/R, accompanied by substantial accumulation of FIB in the brain. In vivo experiments demonstrated that FIB triggered the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in microglia. Proteomic analysis revealed a significant increase in FIB levels following model induction, which were markedly reduced after treatment with TQHXD; KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated that these changes were primarily associated with the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway. Laser speckle contrast imaging showed that TQHXD treatment significantly improved cerebral blood flow and attenuated brain injury in mice. Fluorescence imaging, ELISA, and Western blotting results collectively demonstrated that TQHXD effectively reduced FIB accumulation and suppressed NLRP3 inflammasome activation. MD and pull-down experiments further demonstrated a strong interaction strength between FIB and NLRP3. Conclusions: FIB accumulates in the ischemic penumbra following CIRI, while TQHXD can effectively down-regulate FIB expression and inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation to mitigate CIRI. These findings provide a novel theoretical foundation and treatment direction for stroke management in clinical settings. Full article

Background/Objectives: Cognitive impairment and sleep disturbances are highly prevalent in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS), particularly during middle age, and negatively affect functional independence and quality of life. Although physical exercise has demonstrated cognitive and sleep-related benefits in MS, tolerance to high-intensity training is often limited. Blood flow restriction (BFR) training, which combines low-load resistance exercise with partial vascular occlusion, has emerged as a feasible alternative. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a 12-week BFR training program on performance in specific cognitive domains and sleep quality in middle-aged adults with MS. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted in 65 adults with relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) aged 40–65 years and an Expanded Disability Status Scale score below 7. Participants were randomly assigned to a BFR training group or a usual-care control group. The intervention consisted of supervised low-load resistance training with BFR performed twice weekly for 12 weeks. Outcomes assessed before and after the intervention included processing speed (Symbol Digit Modalities Test), executive function (Trail Making Test A and B), verbal fluency (Isaacs Set Test), and self-reported sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index). Results: Compared with controls, participants in the BFR group showed significant improvements in specific cognitive domains, including processing speed, executive function, and verbal fluency. Significant reductions were also observed in self-reported global sleep disturbance and daytime dysfunction. No adverse events were reported. Conclusions: A 12-week BFR training program improved performance in key cognitive domains and self-reported sleep quality in middle-aged adults with MS, supporting its feasibility and potential clinical relevance as an exercise-based intervention. Full article

Background: Vascular disease is a known risk factor for the development of leukoaraiosis. Assessment of cerebral blood flow (CBF) was performed at baseline and after acetazolamide (AZM) challenge to evaluate for vascular reserve and steal within the brain. Little has been reported on the physiological reserve in the non-flow-limited hemispheres. This study attempts to evaluate for vascular steal in areas commonly involved in leukoaraiosis, in the setting of pharmaceutically induced states of increased CBF. Methods: Patients who underwent AZM challenge MRI from 2014 to 2021 and a cerebral angiogram within one year were included. Patients with bilateral disease or non-diagnostic imaging artifacts were excluded. MRIs were obtained after 1 g of AZM was administered 5 and 10 min prior to acquisition. Augmentation and steal maps were generated. Regression analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient, two-sample t-test, Spearman and Mann–Whitney U analyses were utilized for statistical evaluation. Results: A total of 38 patients with unilateral cerebral vaso-occlusive disease underwent the AZM challenge. Vascular steal and T2 hyperintensities were assessed in non-flow-limited hemispheres (NFLH) and flow-limited hemispheres (FLH). A moderate correlation was demonstrated between NFLH steal and NFLH T2 hyperintensities (rs = 0.48, p = 0.0020). A weak correlation without statistical significance was demonstrated between ipsilateral T2 and contralateral T2 hyperintensities (rs = 0.27, p = 0.10). Conclusions: The vascular steal phenomenon was demonstrated in the distal cerebral vasculature of cerebral white matter even in the absence of upstream flow-limiting stenosis, suggesting an inherent vulnerability of these structures to hemodynamic fluctuations and possiblly contributing etiology to leukoaraiosis. Full article

Background/Objectives: Blood Flow Restriction training has been suggested as a method to enhance strength and neuromuscular adaptations at low exercise intensities. Early reports indicate potential effects on pain perception, myofascial stiffness, and flexibility; however, the evidence remains inconsistent. Method: Twenty-two healthy adults participated in a randomized, within-participant, contralateral-controlled design, performing 5 min of treadmill walking (4–5 km/h) with and without blood flow restriction at 70% arterial occlusion pressure. Pressure pain threshold, hip range of motion, and hamstring stiffness were measured before and after the intervention. Adverse effects were recorded. Results: Changes in pain threshold, range of motion, and myofascial stiffness were similar between conditions. The pressure pain threshold decreased slightly in both conditions, regardless of BFR, while range of motion and stiffness remained unchanged. Mild, short-lasting sensations (cuff pressure, erythema, tingling) were reported, with no adverse events. Conclusions: A single short session of low-intensity BFR walking did not change pain sensitivity, flexibility, or myofascial stiffness in healthy adults. The protocol was well tolerated. Repeated or longer interventions may be needed to see measurable effects. Full article

Sickle cell disease is an autosomal recessive hemoglobin disorder affecting about 100,000 people in the United States, predominantly those of African descent. A point mutation in the β-globin gene in red blood cells causes these cells to sickle under hypoxemic conditions, reducing blood flow and oxygen delivery to tissues. This manifests in the form of painful vaso-occlusive episodes, acute chest syndrome, and acute infarction of various organs, including the spleen, bone, and lung. While sickle cell disease complications such as hemolytic anemia, tissue hypoxia, and chronic organ damage are well studied, attention to the unique reproductive challenges faced by patients with sickle cell disease remains underrecognized and underappreciated. This review aims to explore key reproductive health issues in patients with sickle cell disease, including diminished ovarian reserve, infertility, and obstetric and perinatal risk. Secondly, this review aims to identify key counseling and care opportunities for providers to support patients with sickle cell disease in meeting their reproductive goals. Full article

Objective: This study compares the brain protective effects of L-borneolum and its main components (a combined application of L-borneol and L-camphor) on the rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R). It also makes clear the intrinsic regulatory mechanisms that link the neuroprotective effects of these compounds on IS to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), based on network pharmacology predictions. Furthermore, the study investigates the relationship between these compounds and the Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain-containing Protein 2A (MFSD2A)/Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) signaling axis. Methods: The MCAO/R model in rats was established to evaluate the therapeutic effect of L-borneolum (200 mg/kg) and its main components combination of L-borneol and L-camphor (6:4 ratio, 200 mg/kg). Neurological scores, 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, and Nissl staining were performed to evaluate the neurological damage in the rats. Cerebral blood flow Doppler was applied to monitor the cerebral blood flow changes. Immunofluorescence analysis of albumin leakage and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were conducted to evaluate blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to determine the optimal drug concentration. Trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) assays were employed to confirm the successful establishment of an in vitro BBB co-culture model. Network pharmacology was utilized to predict the biological processes, molecular functions, and cellular components involved in the treatment of ischemic stroke (IS) by the main components of L-borneolum (L-borneol and L-camphor). Finally, immunofluorescence, real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blot analyses were performed to detect the expression of Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain Containing 2A (MFSD2A), caveolin-1 (CAV-1), sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) in brain tissue and hCMEC/D3 cells. Results: Network pharmacology prediction indicated that L-borneolum and its main components (L-borneol and L-camphor) in the treatment of IS are likely associated with vesicle transport and neuroprotection. Treatment of IS with L-borneolum and its main components significantly decreased neurological function scores and cerebral infarction area, while alleviating pathological morphological changes and increasing the number of Nissl bodies in the hippocampus. Additionally, it improved cerebral blood flow, reduced albumin leakage, and decreased vesicle counts in the brain. The trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) of the co-culture model stabilized on the fifth day after co-culture, and the permeability to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the co-culture model was significantly lower than that of the blank chamber at this time. RT-qPCR and Western blot results demonstrated that, compared to the model group, the expression of SREBP1 and MFSD2A significantly increased, while the expression of Cav-1 decreased. Conclusions: L-borneolum and its main components combination (L-borneol/L-camphor, 6:4 ratio) may exert a protective effect in rats with IS by improving BBB transport function through modulation of the MFSD2A/Cav-1 signaling pathway. Full article