Search Results (311)

The 4E Cognition paradigm offers a novel theoretical framework for understanding how acoustic environments influence cognitive processes in university learning spaces. This research integrates objective characterization of environmental parameters with comprehensive subjective evaluation of student experience to explore how aural conditions relate to cognitive processes and physiological stress responses in university learning environments. The study recruited 126 university students from the Engineering Faculty of “G. D’Annunzio” University, with final analysis including 66 valid responses from 28 participants in the acoustically treated classroom and 38 from the control condition. The results revealed modest associations between environmental conditions and cognitive performance measures, with small to moderate effect sizes (Cohen’s d ranging from 0.02 to 0.31). While acoustic treatment produced measurable improvements in speech intelligibility and acoustic quality ratings, differences in cognitive load and allostatic load indices were minimal between conditions. These findings provide preliminary empirical insights for applying the 4E Cognition framework to educational settings, suggesting that acoustic interventions may require extended exposure periods or more intensive treatments to produce substantial physiological and cognitive effects. This work contributes to the emerging field of cognitive architecture by introducing an innovative theoretical approach that reconceptualizes acoustic environments as potential cognitive extensions rather than mere background conditions. The findings offer initial evidence-based insights for integrating environmental considerations into educational facility design, while highlighting the need for longitudinal studies to fully understand how acoustic environments function as cognitive scaffolding in learning contexts. Full article

The rapid expansion of Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) has created both remarkable opportunities and pressing concerns. Applications of intelligent tutoring systems, learning analytics, generative models, and educational robotics illustrate the transformative momentum of the field, yet they also raise fundamental questions regarding ethics, equity, and sustainability. The mission of AI in Education (MDPI) is to provide a rigorous, interdisciplinary, and inclusive platform where these debates can unfold. The journal bridges pedagogy and engineering, welcomes both empirical evidence of positive impacts and critical examinations of systemic risks, and advances responsible innovation in real educational settings. By integrating methodological standards, governance perspectives, and pedagogical ethics, including teacher-centered validation approaches, AI in Education positions itself as a space for constructive dialogue that values both enthusiasm and critique. Above all, the journal is committed to a human-centered vision for AIED, so that innovation in classrooms remains grounded in care, responsibility, and educational purpose. Full article

The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for a scientific framework that enables quantitative assessment and control of airborne infection risks in indoor environments. This study identifies limitations in the traditional Wells–Riley model—specifically its assumptions of perfect mixing and steady-state conditions—and addresses these shortcomings by adopting the REHVA (Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Associations) infection risk assessment model. We propose a five-tier risk classification system (Monitor, Caution, Alert, High Risk, Critical) based on two key metrics: the probability of infection (Pₙ) and the event reproduction number (R_event). Unlike the classical model, our approach integrates airborne virus removal mechanisms—such as natural decay, gravitational settling, and filtration—with occupant dynamics to reflect realistic contagion scenarios. Simulations were conducted across 10 representative indoor settings—such as classrooms, hospital waiting rooms, public transit, and restaurants—considering ventilation rates and activity-specific viral emission patterns. The results quantify how environmental variables (ventilation, occupancy, time) impact each setting’s infection risk level. Our findings indicate that static mitigation measures such as mask-wearing or physical distancing are insufficient without dynamic, model-based risk evaluation. We emphasize the importance of incorporating real-time crowd density, occupancy duration, and movement trajectories into risk scoring. To support this, we propose integrating computer vision (CCTV-based crowd detection) and entry/exit counting sensors within a live airborne risk assessment framework. This integrated system would enable proactive, science-driven epidemic control strategies, supporting real-time adaptive interventions in indoor spaces. The proposed platform could serve as a practical tool for early warning and management during future airborne disease outbreaks. Full article

Multigrade classrooms represent a widely extended educational modality in rural contexts and territories with low demographic density. This organizational model, in which a single teacher serves students from different levels in the same space, poses particular challenges but also significant pedagogical opportunities. In this systemic literature review, a total of 40 international studies were analyzed according to the PRISMA guidelines, published between 2019 and 2024 in databases such as Scopus and ERIC. The objective of this analysis is to identify the main organizational and methodological approaches, as well as the strengths and weaknesses, associated with teaching in multigrade contexts. This systematic review has been prospectively registered in the Open Science Framework (OSF) under registration number: 64rsu. A qualitative thematic analysis was employed to organize the results into five categories: organizational models, pedagogical practices, teacher training, impact on learning, and school-community links. The findings underscore the efficacy of this model in promoting educational inclusion, cooperative learning, and curricular contextualization. Nevertheless, they also underscore the necessity for specific teacher training and support policies. This review offers a comparative and critical perspective that has the potential to inform the development of more effective pedagogical and training strategies in a range of educational settings. Full article

This study presents real-time measurements of particulate matter (PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations across five university indoor environments with varying occupancy levels and natural ventilation conditions. CO₂ concentrations frequently exceeded the 1000 ppm guideline, with peak values reaching 3018 ppm and 2715 ppm in lecture spaces, whereas one workshop environment maintained levels well below limits (mean = 668 ppm). PM concentrations varied widely: PM₁₀ reached 541.5 µg/m³ in a carpeted amphitheater, significantly surpassing the 50 µg/m³ legal daily limit, while a well-ventilated classroom exhibited lower levels despite moderate occupancy (PM₁₀ max = 116.9 µg/m³). Elevated PM values were strongly associated with flooring type and occupant movement, not just activity type. Notably, window ventilation during breaks reduced CO₂ concentrations by up to 305 ppm (p < 1 × 10⁻⁴⁷) and PM₁₀ by over 20% in rooms with favorable layouts. These findings highlight the importance of ventilation strategy, spatial orientation, and surface materials in shaping indoor air quality. The study emphasizes the need for targeted, non-invasive interventions to reduce pollutant exposure in historic university buildings where mechanical ventilation upgrades are often restricted. Full article

In an increasingly interconnected world, educational systems must meet the needs of diverse learners from varying cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. This study aims to explore the principles and practices of designing inclusive digital learning environments tailored to global classrooms, where diversity in language, learning styles, accessibility, and technological resources presents unique challenges and opportunities. This study also explores how leveraging digital tools, artificial intelligence, and adaptive learning technologies can create environments that are responsive to individual learners’ needs and sensitive to cultural nuances. Research on inclusive instructional design was compiled, highlighting methods such as localized content adaptation, multi-language support, and flexible learning pathways. Furthermore, the role of collaborative learning platforms was assessed to foster a sense of community across geographic and cultural boundaries. Case studies were conducted from diverse educational perspectives to propose effective strategies for inclusive digital design, highlighting successful approaches and areas for improvement. Ultimately, a roadmap was constructed for educators, designers, and policymakers to create accessible and culturally aware digital learning spaces to support the academic and social development of all learners, regardless of their background. The results of this study underscore the importance of inclusivity in digital education, contributing to a more equitable and connected global learning landscape. Full article

This commentary addresses a problem of practice related to student disengagement in technology-rich classrooms, where learners are digitally connected but socially and academically disconnected. Although not an empirical study, the commentary draws on instructional examples from secondary- and graduate-level teaching. The authors examine how digital literacy instruction can strengthen engagement, reading comprehension, and ethical participation in online environments. The article highlights strategies such as the workshop model, multimodal composition, digital content curation, and the use of mentor texts to support critical thinking and collaborative learning. These practices aim to develop students’ analytical skills, awareness of audience, and recognition of their own positionality in digital spaces. Across courses, the authors reflected on increased student engagement when digital tools were used not simply for task completion but to support inquiry, discourse, and authentic creation for real audiences. Full article

Despite extensive research on early childhood education (ECE) quality at the preschool level, toddler settings remain comparatively understudied, particularly in Chile and Latin America. Research suggests that quality ECE strengthens child development, while low-quality services can be harmful. ECE quality comprises structural features like ratios and classroom resources, and process features related to interactions within classrooms. This study examines how process and structural quality indicators are related in nurseries serving disadvantaged backgrounds. Data were collected from 51 Chilean urban classrooms serving children aged 12–24 months. Classrooms were evaluated using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) for toddlers, questionnaires, and checklists. Latent Profile Analysis identified process quality patterns, while multinomial regression examined associations with structural quality indicators. The results revealed low-to-moderate process quality across classrooms (M = 4.78 for Emotional and Behavioral Support; M = 2.35 for Engaged Support for Learning), with three distinct quality clusters emerging. Marginally significant differences were found between high- and low-performing clusters regarding classroom space (p = 0.06), number of toys (p = 0.08), and staff educational credentials (p = 0.01–0.07). No significant differences emerged for group sizes or adult-to-child ratios, which are heavily regulated in Chile. These findings underscore the need to strengthen quality assurance mechanisms ensuring all children access quality ECE. Full article

This narrative inquiry explores a vibrant classroom knowledge community in a Chinese normal university. By examining the teacher’s interactions, we analyze the community’s development through three perspectives: (1) the author’s narrative of the course outline, (2) the teacher’s narrative of classroom culture, and (3) students’ narratives of their growth. The author presents a student-centered model and seven steps for enacting the course, outlining the environment for cultivating the knowledge community. The teacher’s narrative reveals clues to his success, emphasizing his use of storytelling to foster the community and share educational ideas. Students’ narratives reflect their growth, validating the classroom as a safe space for development and language learning. The significance of this research is that the classroom knowledge community consisted of the teacher, his undergraduate students, and his post-graduates. The three layers existed because of this unrestrained character, devoid of conflicts of interest, created a safe place for students’ development. This research study adds to the literature on how knowledge communities form in school contexts. It focuses on a particular space and time and involves multiple layers of participants, which is prerequisite to the conceptualization of classroom knowledge community. This research has important implications for college language education. Full article

Lecture halls are characterized by large spatial dimensions, deep floor plans, and high occupant densities. Lectures are typically conducted using multimedia and blackboard-based teaching, placing higher demands on the indoor light and thermal environment compared to standard classrooms. This study aims to simulate the interrelationships between multiple building envelope parameters and building performance, in order to improve visual and thermal comfort while reducing energy consumption in cold-region lecture halls. Based on seven key envelope parameters—including openable window area ratio, west-facing window-to-wall ratio, exterior insulation thickness, shading element spacing, angle and width, and window glass type—a multi-objective optimization framework was established. The optimization process targeted three key performance indicators—useful daylight illuminance (UDI), energy use intensity (EUI), and thermal comfort percentage (TCP)—in the context of a stepped classroom. The results show that increasing the thickness of exterior insulation and reducing the width of shading components contribute positively to photothermal comfort without compromising thermal and visual performance. Compared with the baseline design, optimized schemes that incorporate appropriate west-facing window-to-wall ratios, openable window areas, insulation thicknesses, and external shading designs can reduce annual energy consumption by up to 10.82%, and increase UDI and TCP by 12.79% and 36.41%, respectively. These improvements are also found to be economically viable. Full article

Numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriate use of daylight in educational spaces significantly enhances students’ health and academic performance. However, classrooms in Tehran still suffer from considerable daylighting challenges. In many cases, desks near windows are exposed to excessive brightness, while areas farther from the windows lack adequate illumination. This often leads to the use of curtains and artificial lighting, resulting in higher energy consumption and potential negative impacts on student learning. Light shelf systems have been proposed as effective daylighting solutions to improve light penetration and distribution. According to previous research, three key parameters—geometry, depth, and surface reflectance—play a critical role in the performance of light shelves. However, prior studies have typically focused on improving one or two of these parameters in isolation. There is a lack of research evaluating all three parameters simultaneously to determine season-specific configurations for optimal performance. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates the combined effects of light shelf geometry, depth, and reflectance across different seasons and proposes a system that dynamically adapts these parameters throughout the year. In winter, the system also integrates photovoltaic panels to reduce glare and generate electricity for its operation. Simulation results indicate that the proposed system leads to a 21% improvement in Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI), a 65% increase in thermal comfort, and a 10% annual reduction in energy consumption. These findings highlight the potential of the proposed system as a practical and energy-efficient daylighting strategy for educational buildings in sunny regions such as Tehran. Full article

Sustainable informal learning environments are increasingly recognized as critical components of educational architecture, yet their environmental and behavioral dynamics remain underexplored. Informal learning spaces (ILS) support flexible, student-driven learning beyond formal classrooms. While prior research often isolates individual environmental factors, integrated multi-domain interactions and reciprocal occupant–space dynamics receive less attention. This study adopts a dual-perspective analytical framework, combining spatial analysis and student surveys (n = 1048) across 130 ILS in five academic buildings in China. The findings highlight several environmental dimensions influencing student experience. One extracted factor combines acoustic and thermal comfort with learning atmosphere—domains seldom grouped together—indicating their collective relevance to student experience. Additionally, spatial openness and natural connectivity further enhance student experience. Importantly, the results show that frequently used spaces receive lower physical quality ratings, group collaboration areas outperform individual study zones, and spontaneously formed spaces—informally appropriated, unplanned areas such as corridors or leftover corners—score lowest. These patterns may reflect mismatches between spatial supply and use intensity, institutional investment priorities, and differing levels of student autonomy and environmental control. This research extends conventional post-occupancy evaluations by introducing a comprehensive dual-perspective framework that links spatial characteristics with user-driven dynamics, and by identifying the combined effects of multi-domain physical environmental and supportive elements on student experience. The insights offer empirical grounding and actionable strategies for campus planners and architects, including prioritizing sensory comfort, enhancing spatial diversity, and supporting student-led adaptations to promote sustainable learning environments. Full article

Sound source localization (SSL) equips service robots with the ability to perceive sound similarly to humans, which is particularly valuable in complex, dark indoor environments where vision-based systems may not work. From a data collection perspective, increasing the number of microphones generally improves SSL performance. However, a large microphone array such as a 16-microphone array configuration may occupy significant space on a robot. To address this, we propose a novel framework that uses a structure of four planar moving microphones to emulate the performance of a 16-microphone array, thereby saving space. Because of its unique design, this structure can dynamically form various spatial patterns, enabling 3D SSL, including estimation of angle, distance, and height. For experimental comparison, we also constructed a circular 6-microphone array and a planar 4 × 4 microphone array, both capable of rotation to ensure fairness. Three SSL algorithms were applied across all configurations. Experiments were conducted in a standard classroom environment, and the results show that the proposed framework achieves approximately 80–90% accuracy in angular estimation and around 85% accuracy in distance and height estimation, comparable to the performance of the 4 × 4 planar microphone array. Full article

Improving students’ thermal comfort in university courtyards and indoor spaces promotes walkability, enhances livability, and fosters social interaction among students. This study aims to improve students’ outdoor thermal comfort in university courtyards, to reduce heat transfer to classrooms, and to accordingly reduce energy consumption in university buildings in hot arid climates. Thus, the proposed coupled methodology for the case study, the Faculty of Agriculture, New Sohag University, Egypt, consists of three stages. First, monitoring and questionnaire surveys were conducted in the open courtyard and the classroom to obtain air temperature, wind speed, thermal image, and CO₂ and thermal comfort analysis. Secondly, the Envi-met model was used to investigate the impact of six improvement solutions on improving thermal comfort in the courtyard. Third, retrofitting strategies in the building envelope were evaluated to decrease heat transfer and energy consumption by DesignBuilder software. Consequently, the findings revealed a high outdoor air temperature, which causes discomfort for students. Hence, the simulation results concluded that the significant reduction of physiological equivalent temperature (PET), which ranged between 11.1 °C and 13.9 °C, occurred after applying the hybrid improvement solutions (vegetation area and semi-shading or pergola-shading). Moreover, integrating a combination of retrofitting strategies into the faculty buildings contributed to a 30% reduction in energy consumption. Ultimately, the proposed methodology aims to assist architects and urban designers in the early design stages by providing the appropriate environmental solutions for the universities’ courtyards and buildings in hot arid climates. Full article

Indoor environmental quality profoundly impacts student learning outcomes and teacher effectiveness, particularly in primary education, where children spend most of their developmental years. The study compares the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s Designing Quality Learning Spaces (DQLS) version 2.0 for primary school classrooms with international standards set by OECD countries to develop IAQ and thermal comfort best practices in New Zealand across six climate zones. The research evaluates indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort factors affecting students’ and teachers’ health and performance. Using Ladybug and Honeybee plugin tools in Grasshopper with Energy Plus, integrated into Rhino 7 software, the study employed advanced building optimisation methods, using multi-criteria optimisation and parametric modelling. This approach enabled a comprehensive analysis of building envelope parameters for historical classroom designs, the Avalon block (constructed between 1955 and 2000). Optimise window-to-wall ratios, ceiling heights, window placement, insulation values (R-values), clothing insulation (Clo), and window opening schedules. Our findings demonstrate that strategic modifications to the building envelope can significantly improve occupant comfort and energy performance. Specifically, increasing ceiling height by 0.8 m, raising windows by 0.3 m vertically, and reducing the window-to-wall ratio to 25% created optimal conditions across multiple performance criteria. These targeted adjustments improved adaptive thermal comfort, ventilation, carbon dioxide, and energy efficiency while maintaining local and international standards. The implications of the findings extend beyond the studied classrooms, offering evidence-based strategies for overall design and building performance guidelines in educational facilities. This research demonstrates the efficacy of applying computational design optimisation during early design phases, providing policymakers and architects with practical solutions that could inform future revisions of New Zealand’s school design standards and align them more closely with international best practices for educational environments. Full article