Search Results (78)

The Brazilian Amazon has been endangered by agro-extractivism, a development model characterized by the expansion of the agricultural frontier to produce raw commodities embedded in power-asymmetrical commodity chains. Recently, the socio-biodiversity economy has emerged as an alternative development model, aimed at reconciling local development with nature conservation. While the environmental and social contrasts between the two models are well documented, the commercial dimension of the socio-biodiversity economy remains underexplored. These two models are typically approached as separate systems, yet their coexistence and interaction within the same actors and across interconnected value chains has not been empirically examined. In this paper, we provide a qualitative analysis of dynamics and upgrading mechanisms in two cocoa value chains in the Brazilian Amazon: raw (bulk) and fine-flavor (fino) cocoa. Through this comparison, we examine how each chain differs in terms of commercial relations and how socio-biodiversity economy and agro-extractivism interact within the commercial sphere. The research took place in three municipalities along the Transamazon highway between March and September 2024. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with cocoa producers, buyers, and supporting actors such as NGOs, companies, and public agencies, complemented by participant observation and participation in cocoa-related events. Findings suggest that the bulk and fino cocoa chains present distinct commercial configurations, the former displaying agro-extractivist patterns, the latter consistent with the socio-biodiversity economy. Cocoa production in the region is part of an emergent socio-biodiversity economy that remains commercially embedded in agro-extractivism. Notably, farmers engage in both chains as part of their livelihood strategies, while relying predominantly on the bulk trade. We argue that the fino cocoa chain may represent a pathway for transforming commercial relations in the region, provided that the structural conditions sustaining agro-extractivist patterns in the bulk chain are addressed. More broadly, we show that production-level transitions toward sustainable farming do not automatically translate into the transformation of commercial relations, and call for greater analytical attention to the commercial dimension of socio-biodiversity economies. Full article

Cocoa production in West Africa supplies most of the global demand but is increasingly constrained by yield stagnation, soil degradation, disease pressure, and climate variability. This review examines how integrating regenerative agriculture (RA) with unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and artificial intelligence (AI) can support more precise and resilient cocoa management across heterogeneous smallholder landscapes. A PRISMA-guided systematic review of peer-reviewed literature published between 2000 and 2024 was conducted, yielding 49 core studies analyzed alongside supporting evidence. The synthesis evaluates regenerative agronomic outcomes, UAV-derived multispectral, thermal, and structural diagnostics, and AI-based analytical approaches for stress detection, yield estimation, and management zoning. Results indicate that regenerative practices consistently improve soil health and yield stability, while UAS data enhance spatial targeting of rehabilitation, shade management, and stress interventions. AI models further improve predictive capacity and decision relevance when aligned with data availability and institutional context, although performance varies across systems. Reported yield stabilization or improvement typically ranges from 12–30% under integrated approaches, with concurrent reductions in fertilizer and water inputs where spatial targeting is applied. The review concludes that effective scaling of RA–UAS–AI systems depends less on technical sophistication than on governance arrangements, extension integration, and cooperative service models, positioning these tools as enabling components rather than standalone solutions for sustainable cocoa intensification. Full article

Soil fertility plays a crucial role in crop productivity, particularly in cocoa cultivation, which is highly dependent on soil quality that directly influences both productivity and sustainability. Understanding how to achieve and maintain soil fertility on cocoa farms is fundamental to sustaining higher yields. Cocoa production in Ghana and Togo remains low, at 350–600 kg/ha, compared to the potential yield of over 1–3 tons per hectare. Given the growing demand for cocoa and limited arable land, adequate soil nutrients are essential to optimise productivity. Soil fertility indices (SFIs) have been widely used as soil metrics by integrating multiple physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. In this study, standard analytical methods were employed to evaluate the SFI through laboratory analyses of 49 surface soil samples collected at a depth of 0–30 cm with an auger. Eleven soil chemical indicators were analysed: pH (water), organic matter (OM), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), available phosphorus (P), total nitrogen (N), cation exchange capacity (CEC), electrical conductivity (EC), and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N). Principal component analysis, followed by normalisation, was used to select a minimum dataset, which was then integrated into an additive SFI. Results indicated that N, Ca, Mg, CEC, and pH were within the optimal range for most surveyed locations (96%, 94%, 92%, 73%, and 63%, respectively), while OM and C/N were within the optimal range in approximately half of the study area. Available P, K, and C/N were highly deficient in 100%, 67%, and 96% of surveyed locations, respectively. Soil fertility varied significantly among locations (p = 0.007) and was generally low, ranging from 0.15 to 0.66. Only 20% of the soils in the study area were classified as adequately fertile for cocoa cultivation. Therefore, it is necessary to restore soil nutrient balance, especially the critically low levels of K and P, through appropriate management practices that improve fertility over time and help close the yield gap. Full article

In the Amazonian piedmont, cacao-based agroforestry systems (cAFSs) were significantly influenced by the soil’s physical, hydraulic, and structural characteristics, which largely determined agricultural productivity. A total of 122 plots with cocoa-based agroforestry systems measuring 1000 m² were randomly selected from different farms located in the Amazonian foothills in the department of Caquetá. Different variables related to soil physics and hydrology, as well as production, were determined for each plot. Soil characteristics explain 33% of the total variance in cocoa yield. Sand content (71.2%) correlated positively with yield, while clay (22.62%) and silt (23.99%) correlated negatively. Three soil types were identified: sandy loam (high productivity, yield 1129.07 g) and two variants of sandy clay loam (lower yield, 323.97 g). Hydraulic properties were important, with total porosity of 56.04% and hydraulic conductivity of 20.45 mm h⁻¹. The CCN-51 and ICS-60 clones performed better in sandy loam soils, while ICS-95 and TSH-565 adapted better to sandy clay loam soils with medium stability. The physical and hydric soil properties are crucial factors that directly influence cocoa productivity in agroforestry systems of the Amazon piedmont, where the appropriate selection of clones according to soil characteristics is fundamental to optimize crop productivity and sustainability. Full article

This article examines the production costs of cocoa farming in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa, taking into account the opportunity cost approach. To this end, surveys were conducted among 228 farmers in three regions, Bonon, Soubré and Biankouma, following an east–west gradient. The estimated costs of using family labor and land were based on the opportunity cost approach. The financial costs associated with production were also taken into account. Comparative analyses between different localities and cropping systems highlighted specific workload characteristics. Finally, a principal component analysis (PCA) was used to profile producers according to their income levels and profits. The findings showed that family labor was the main component of cocoa production costs. Prices paid to farmers did not always cover all production costs, with 38% of farmers producing at a loss, and this was contingent on the agro-ecological zone. Furthermore, the agroforestry system proved to be more economical in terms of labor than the full-sun system. These results underline the relevance of the opportunity cost approach in assessing production costs and setting cocoa selling prices. This should lead to a review of public price-setting mechanisms to ensure fair remuneration for family labor. Full article

Coastal regions of Ecuador, particularly Esmeraldas and Manabí, face significant challenges related to energy access, waste management, and sustainable agricultural development. This study evaluates the renewable energy potential of cocoa waste biomass generated by smallholder farms in these provinces. A total of 20 cocoa farms, either certified or in the process of certification under the Rainforest Alliance standard, were surveyed to quantify the volume of agricultural and agro-industrial residues. Residual biomass generation ranged from 50 to 6500 tons per year, depending on farm size, planting density, and management practices. Spatial analysis revealed that Esmeraldas holds the highest concentration of cocoa waste biomass, with some farms reaching a gross energy potential of up to 89.07 TJ/year. Using thermochemical conversion scenarios, effective energy potential was estimated, and 75% of the farms exceeded the viability threshold of 100 MWh/year. The results confirm the feasibility of cocoa biomass as a renewable energy source, mainly when managed collectively at the community level. Incorporating this waste into decentralized energy systems supports circular economy models, enhances energy self-sufficiency, and aligns with sustainable supply chain goals promoted by certification schemes. This study contributes to national efforts in energy diversification and provides a replicable model for integrating renewable energy into rural agricultural systems. Full article

The cocoa production in Ghana, largely reliant on rainfall and undertaken by smallholder farmers, is increasingly endangered by climate change-induced water scarcity. Although supplemental irrigation has been posited as an adaptive measure, its hydrological impacts remain understudied. This current study seeks to bridge this knowledge gap by employing the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to evaluate the hydrological and water resource implications of supplemental irrigation within the Upper Offin sub-basin of Ghana. High-resolution spatial data and field survey inputs were used to model dry period baseline and irrigation scenarios for cocoa farms with gentle slopes (2%). The results reveal that supplemental irrigation from the shallow aquifer can sustainably support irrigation for up to 5% of the cocoa area (4760 ha) without adversely affecting groundwater flow. Extending irrigation to 30% of the cocoa area (28,540 ha) is feasible with minimal reduction in catchment water yield. This study’s novelty lies in integrating high-resolution data with localized management practices to provide actionable insights for balancing cocoa productivity and water sustainability. The findings offer practical recommendations for policymakers, emphasizing that through solar-powered irrigation the shallow groundwater is a pathway to enhance climate resilience of cocoa productivity. Full article

In this study, we analysed cocoa (a dried and fully fermented seed of Theobroma cacao L.) from two Amazonian cultivars and a commercial sample of the Amazonian variety EETP801, grown under sustainable organic conditions, in comparison to CCN51 cocoa grown on a neighbouring commercial farm using standard practises and a European commercial cacao powdered beverage. The overall metabolite profile of the 70% aq acetone sample cocoa extracts was analysed using high-performance TLC analyses (HPTLC), and the xanthine alkaloids were analysed using quantitative liquid chromatography–UV photodiode array (HPLC-DAD) analyses. The volatile fraction in the headspace of the freshly ground cocoa was subjected to solid phase micro-extraction and analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS). Total polyphenol content was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu method. Despite the reduced production of cocoa by the EETP801 cultivar in comparison with the CCN51 cultivar, the obtained produce is significantly richer in theobromine (130 mg vs. 170 mg per g of cacao), with CCN51 having a double concentration of theophylline (12.6 vs. 6.5 mg per g of cacao). Qualitatively, the two Amazonian cocoa samples had a similar polyphenolic composition (per the HPTLC fingerprint). HS-SPME/GC-MS analyses revealed that all the samples show a spontaneous emission profile mainly rich in non-terpene derivatives, of which hydrocarbons and pyrazines are the most abundant groups. The most represented volatile organic compound is n-tridecane for both EETP801 and CCN51. The variability in the artisan fermentation and roasting processes influenced certain aspects of the volatile composition as reflected by the trimethyl pyrazine/tetramethyl pyrazine ratio, which was zero in EETP-801 and lower than 1 in CCN51. Acetic acid was absent in CCN51 but significant (c.a. 5.5.%) in EETP801 and the commercial samples. The cultivar EETP801 is a viable option for a more ecologically conscious sector of the cocoa beverages consumer group. Full article

Despite growing interest in improving soil health on cocoa farms, applied research on the impacts of specific amendments on soil and plant outcomes is lacking. An integrated assessment of the impacts of two different organic amendments (compost and vermicompost) and a microbial biofertilizer on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, as well as cocoa flowering, fruit set, and yield, was conducted in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Complementary culture-dependent and culture-independent methods were used to assess the impacts of amendments on microbial diversity, community composition, and specific taxa. Compost or vermicompost application affected soil chemical properties, including potassium, phosphorus, and sodium, and had small but significant effects on fungal beta diversity. Biofertilizer application slightly lowered soil pH and altered the total abundance of specific taxonomic groups including Azotobacter sp. and Trichoderma sp., with borderline significant effects on Azospirillum sp., Lactobacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., calcium-solubilizing bacteria, and phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria. Amplicon sequencing (16S, ITS) identified 15 prokaryotic and 68 fungal taxa whose relative abundance was influenced by organic amendments or biofertilizer. Biofertilizer application increased cherelle formation by 19% and monthly harvestable pod counts by 11% despite no impact on flowering index or annual pod totals. This study highlights the tangible potential of microbiome optimization to simultaneously improve on-farm yield and achieve soil health goals on cocoa farms. Full article

A study was conducted in Sierra Leone to identify cassava plants that are asymptomatic and symptomatic to cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and collect planting materials for field trial establishment; determine the prevalence of CMD caused by African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) and East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV) using the Nuru App and virus indexing techniques; and assess selected agronomic traits in cassava. A total of 80 cassava farms spanning four provinces (Southern, Eastern, Northern, and North-West) were surveyed in April 2022. Findings showed that the cassava variants of the experiment and locations significantly (p < 0.001) affected CMD incidence, severity, growth, and fresh storage root yield traits. The CMD incidence (87.0%) and whitefly abundance (144.8) were highest, and the CMD severity was moderate (4.0) for the plants derived from cuttings obtained from symptomatic Cocoa mother plants, while plants derived from cuttings of improved mother plants exhibited no visible symptoms of the disease and the lowest population (45.1) of whiteflies. The Nuru app is inefficient for phenotypically detecting CMD at 3 months after planting (MAP), while at 6, 9 and 12 MAP, the app efficiently detected the disease using a molecular analysis technique. Resistant, non-diseased plants derived from cuttings obtained from SLICASS 4 mother plants produced the highest fresh storage root yield (54.9 t ha⁻¹). The highest storage root yield loss was recorded in the plants obtained from cuttings of symptomatic variety Cocoa mother plants harvested at Matotoka grassland ecology, Bombali District (90.2%), while those harvested from cuttings of asymptomatic variety Cocoa mother plants grown at the four test environments had a similar storage root yield loss ranging from 40.3 to 46.2%. Findings suggest the importance of genetic variability, environmental adaptation, utilization of diseased-free materials, and phytosanitation as disease management strategies for increased production. These findings provide important insights into the distribution, impact, and spread of CMD and whitefly abundance in the studied areas in Sierra Leone that could be exploited for cassava production, productivity, conservation, and population improvement. Full article

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is one of the world’s most traded commodities. Cocoa grown in agroforestry systems is considered a climate-smart agricultural practice, in part due to the role of shade trees as carbon reservoirs and carbon sinks. In Brazil, most production is concentrated in Bahia state, where traditional cocoa agroforests—locally known as cabrucas—are well known to harbor significant above- and below-ground carbon stocks, although their ability to act as carbon sinks is less well established. By analyzing previously published data on the dynamics of tree assemblages within a 1.7 ha area on a cabruca farm, we estimated an annual carbon increment of 3.46 Mg C ha⁻¹, a value comparable to other shade cocoa plantations elsewhere but more than three times the previous estimate for a cabruca. We discuss the importance of these findings and highlight the potential role of traditional cocoa shade plantations as climate-friendly crops, thus contributing to climate mitigation. It is also essential to highlight the importance of the carbon sequestration and storage services provided by tropical agroforestry systems. Full article

The main barriers faced by small-scale cocoa producers in Ecuador are the limited access to and the use of information technologies, which affects their efficiency in production and marketing. This study evaluated the impact of information behavior on the fertilization and marketing strategies of small cocoa farmers in two Ecuadorian provinces that have presented outstanding performance at the national level in order to identify the main factors that cause information gaps. For this purpose, a structured survey was conducted between May and June 2024 on 150 cocoa producers farming up to 10 hectares to collect demographic data and analyze their information-use patterns in relation to agricultural market strategies. The survey included five dimensions: information sources, information evaluation, informational, social and economic. In addition, soil chemical analyses were conducted in 50 plantations managed by the same farmers to determine the affinity between fertilization practices and the nutritional needs of the crop. The results indicated that farmers in Guayas showed a more developed information behavior, with a greater knowledge of their information needs and an active interest in collecting data on agricultural markets. In contrast, farmers in Los Ríos made less use of the media as a source of information, which limited their impact on social and economic aspects. In soil chemistry, both provinces presented favorable conditions for the crop; however, low nitrogen and potassium concentrations could affect yields. In Guayas, the analyses revealed averages of 0.34 cmol(+)/L aluminum, 3.03 cmol(+)/L magnesium and 0.33 cmol(+)/L potassium, values that mostly meet the nutritional standards for cocoa. In Los Rios, the analyses reflected average values of 0.68 ± 0.46 cmol(+)/L aluminum, 2.98 ± 1.13 cmol(+)/L magnesium and 0.34 ± 0.11 cmol(+)/L potassium. Based on the findings of this study, in order to improve the competitiveness of the sector, it is suggested to design accessible public policies and training programs oriented to the use of digital tools and sustainable practices that promote access to markets and optimize the production chain. Full article

Cocoa farming in Ecuador faces significant challenges due to market volatility and climate-related risks, necessitating effective risk management strategies. This study investigates the interplay between risk attitudes (RAs), risk perceptions (RPs), and risk management strategies (RMSs) among Ecuadorian cocoa farmers, examining how these factors influence decision-making under uncertainty. Combining experimental lotteries to assess risk and loss aversion, with partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to analyze survey data, we explore how farmers prioritize perceived impacts over probabilities in their risk assessments. The findings reveal that farmers focus more on mitigating severe perceived impacts, such as price drops and production losses due to adverse weather, than on probability-based strategies, commonly opting for diversification and nonagricultural activities. These results highlight the importance of designing policies and tools that address the perceived impacts of risks, align support with farmers’ needs, and improve access to financial resources and tailored insurances. This approach offers valuable insights for policymakers aiming to enhance cocoa farmers’ resilience in volatile agricultural environments. Full article

In the Americas’ leading cocoa-producing countries, more productive clonal cultivars than traditional biclonal hybrids have been created. In Brazil, several disease-resistant and self-compatible clones such as PS 1319, FA 13, and SJ 02 have been selected on producer farms. The CCN 51 clone from Ecuador is also significant in Brazil. This study aimed to analyze these clones concerning their genetic structures using single-nucleotide polymorphisms, productive potential, disease resistance, and the physico-chemical and organoleptic characteristics of the beans. Clone SJ 02 has ancestry from Contamana (40.7%), Iquitos (34.5%), and Amelonado (23.5%). PS 1319 is primarily Amelonado (67.9%), with Criollo (15.7%) and Contamana (15.6%). FA 13 mainly consists of Amelonado (53.5%) and Iquitos (44.1%). Local cultivars of Bahia are mostly Amelonado, with 99.8% in Comum and Parazinho, 97.4% in Maranhão, and 95.5% in Pará. PS 1319, SJ 02, and FA 13 clones were significantly more productive than CCN 51 but did not differ in disease resistance levels. Significant differences were noted among the cultivars in physicochemical traits (fat, caffeine, and theobromine content). Sensorially, SJ 02 outperformed the other cultivars and was comparable to the reference clone BN 34. The findings indicate that Brazil’s elite clones, derived from complex crosses involving Amelonado, Contamana, Iquitos, and Criollo groups, are productive, resistant, and exhibit favorable physico-chemical and organoleptic qualities, making them valuable for future clonal breeding programs. Full article

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) relies on insect pollination for fruit production, making it essential to understand the pollinators involved. This study aimed to identify the insects associated with cocoa pollination and their relationship with effective natural pollination in a cocoa agroforestry system in Yopal, Colombia. Indirect (wood traps) and direct (manual aspiration in flowers) methods were used to capture pollinators. The number of captured insects was correlated with the percentage of pollinated, fertilized, aborted, and transitioning flowers using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Additionally, the natural transfer of pollen was assessed by evaluating the coverage of near-opening flowers and staining pollen grains on the stigma under natural conditions. This study identified Diptera from the Ceratopogonidae family, specifically the genera Forcipomyia and Dasyhelea, as key pollinators. The findings highlight the presence of these pollinators in the Yopal cocoa agroforestry system and suggest the need for further pollinator capture and identification efforts on local farms. A positive correlation was found between the number of pollinating insects and the percentage of fertilized flowers, emphasizing the crucial role of these insects in cocoa pollination and the importance of promoting their presence to optimize fruit production. Full article