Search Results (226)

Background/Objectives: Evidence on the role of muscle mechanical (myotonic) properties in athletic performance remains limited in young adult and sub-elite populations, particularly in American football, and sex-specific patterns of association are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between lower extremity myotonic properties and performance outcomes (strength and balance) in American football athletes, with a specific focus on sex-related differences and candidate predictors. Methods: A cross-sectional design was implemented involving 35 American football athletes (17 female, 18 male). Lower extremity muscle tone, stiffness, and elasticity were assessed using MyotonPRO. Strength parameters (lower limb, handgrip, back, and shoulder internal rotation) and balance performance (static and dynamic under eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions) were evaluated using standardized measurement protocols. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine bivariate associations, followed by Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression to determine candidate predictors while addressing multicollinearity. Results: Male athletes exhibited significantly greater height, body mass, and BMI (p < 0.001), alongside elevated myotonic values compared to females. Correlation analyses indicated distinct sex-specific association patterns between myotonic properties and performance metrics. LASSO regression revealed a distinct sex-specific divergence in strength prediction: female strength was predominantly driven by proximal musculature (quadriceps and hamstring elasticity/stiffness), whereas male strength was anchored by distal musculature (gastrocnemius tone/stiffness). Furthermore, rigorous penalization shrunk nearly all balance coefficients to zero in both sexes, indicating that resting myotonic properties do not independently predict dynamic or static postural control. Conclusions: While lower extremity myotonic properties are candidate predictors of multi-regional strength via sex-specific proximal and distal strategies, they do not independently predict balance performance, suggesting postural control relies primarily on active motor recruitment rather than passive resting mechanics. Given the cross-sectional design of this study, causal inferences cannot be drawn, and these findings should be interpreted accordingly. The observed sex-specific differences may support consideration of individualized, sex-informed training strategies in American football athletes. Full article

This study was based on a 30 m inside-foot long-pass scenario and aimed to preliminarily evaluate the agreement between MediaPipe Pose, DWPose, YOLO-Pose, and Xsens, as well as their practical utility under real-field conditions. Twelve elite male football players performed 15 consecutive long-passes, with data collected simultaneously using Xsens and two smartphones positioned at 15° and 35° to the right front of the participants. The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC (2,1)) and Bland–Altman analysis were used to evaluate discrete kinematic measures. Continuous kinematic agreement was assessed using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Coefficient of Multiple Determination (CMD), while Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) and Statistical non-Parametric Mapping (SnPM) compared differences across the entire analysis interval. Across the three models, CMD ranged from 0.13 ± 0.17 to 0.67 ± 0.25, and RMSE ranged from 9.88 ± 8.20° to 39.92 ± 10.44°. The SPM and SnPM results showed that significant differences were mainly concentrated in the bilateral hip, knee, and ankle joints. The three models cannot yet be used for field-based high-precision kinematic data measurement; however, MediaPipe Pose and DWPose may be selectively used for rapid screening of movement patterns and analysis of movement trends in football-specific technical movements. Full article

This study aimed to evaluate the within-system agreement and interchangeability of real-time and post-processed external load metrics in elite football. Data were collected from 50 official Serie A matches using Dynamix (K-Sport World S.R.L., Pesaro, Italy), the platform for acquiring and standardizing tracking inputs. SmartLive, a real-time monitoring module embedded within Dynamix, was compared with post-processed data from the league-approved optical tracking provider (Hawk-Eye Innovations Limited, Basingstoke, UK) in Serie A. The external load metrics analyzed included total distance covered; distances at speeds exceeding 15, 20, and 25 km·h⁻¹; distances within the 15–20 km·h⁻¹ and 20–25 km·h⁻¹ ranges; distance covered during accelerations > 2 m·s⁻² and decelerations < −2 m·s⁻²; and peak speed. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) demonstrated excellent agreement across all metrics, with values ranging from 0.929 to 0.999. Bland–Altman analysis revealed small mean differences between systems, indicating strong agreement. Overall, the findings confirm that both real-time and post-processed data are in close agreement across a wide range of performance metrics. Minor discrepancies were observed in intermediate speed zones and acceleration/deceleration events. This study provides the first validation of SmartLive’s within-system agreement with post-processed data, supporting its use alongside post-processed data in elite football environments. Full article

This study quantified performance indicators associated with match outcomes among champion teams from the five major European football leagues during the 2023–2024 season. Ordinal logistic regression with robust standard errors clustered by team was employed, with analyses stratified by match location (home/away) and opponent quality (high/medium/low). Data from 182 matches were sourced from Wyscout^® and included offensive indicators (possession, passes, shots, shots on target, expected goals) and defensive indicators (interceptions, fouls, shots conceded, yellow and red cards). Spearman correlations showed that goals scored ($q=0.523$) and shots on target ($q=0.243$) were positively associated with match outcomes, whereas goals conceded ($q=-0.441$) and fouls ($q=-0.255$) were negatively associated. Ordinal regression revealed context-dependent effects. Offensively, shots on target increased the odds of a better outcome at home (OR = 3.76) and against high-quality opponents (OR = 5.24), while expected goals (xG) was the key predictor in away matches (OR = 2.09). Defensively, interceptions were crucial against high-quality opponents (OR = 1.76), while fouls (OR = 0.53) and yellow cards (OR = 0.61) were detrimental against medium-quality opponents. Against low-quality opponents, shots on target conceded (OR = 0.22) and red cards (OR = 66.58) were critical. Volume-based indicators did not retain significant independent effects. For elite champion teams, competitive success is predominantly determined by efficiency-based indicators, shot accuracy, expected goals, and defensive organisation, whose relevance varies systematically with context. These findings provide exploratory insights and a context-sensitive benchmark for performance analysis at the highest level of European football, warranting further validation in future studies. Full article

This systematic review synthesized the existing evidence on neurofeedback interventions applied to football players, aiming to clarify their effects on cognitive, technical–tactical, physical and psychological performance. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, four databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS and SportsDiscus) were searched up to November 2025. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria, involving 133 players across youth, amateur, national and elite levels. Neurofeedback protocols primarily targeted alpha or sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) activity, and some were combined with heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback. Across studies, neurofeedback may be associated with improvements in several cognitive outcomes, including improvements in working memory, visuospatial memory, task switching, mental rotation and decision-making. Limited evidence suggests potential improvements in technical skills (particularly shooting accuracy) and tactical decision-making. Some studies reported changes in physiological markers and stress-recovery capacity, although their interpretation remains uncertain. However, the evidence base remains constrained by small samples, heterogeneous protocols and limited use of randomized controlled designs. Overall, neurofeedback appears to be a potentially promising but still experimental tool to support cognitive and psychophysiological readiness in football, warranting more rigorous and standardized research to establish efficacy and optimal training parameters. Full article

This study aimed to investigate how score status and playing position affect the most demanding passages (MDPs) in elite women’s football. Data from ten matches from eighteen outfield players of the Turkish Women’s National Team were collected during UEFA Nations League fixtures in the 2024–2025 seasons. Players were monitored using wearable GPS sensors, and all locomotor variables were segmented into one-minute windows to identify peak demands. The analysed variables included total distance (TD), high-speed running (HSR), sprint distance (SD), high-acceleration distance (HIAccD), high-deceleration distance (HIDecD), high metabolic power distance (HMPD), and player load (PL). Generalised Estimating Equations (GEE) were used to assess the effects of score status and playing position. Wingers (WG) showed the highest TD, HSR, and HMPD values, while centre backs covered less TD and HSR than WG. Full-backs and forwards (FW) also recorded lower TD, although FW exceeded WG in sprinting (p = 0.045, d values = 0.66 [moderate effect]). Score status influenced MDPs, with TD decreasing when the match was tied and further declining when the team was behind; similar reductions occurred in HSR, HIAccD, HIDecD, and HMPD. In conclusion, both score status and position significantly shaped peak locomotor and mechanical demands. These findings may inform individualised training, recovery programmes, and score-dependent tactical planning in elite women’s football. Full article

Injuries in elite youth football may disrupt training continuity and long-term development, particularly during the post-peak height velocity (post-PHV) period when training and match demands increase. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine injury incidence and describe injury patterns in elite U17 football players across six consecutive competitive seasons, including injury type, anatomical location, mechanism, recurrence, and severity. A prospective longitudinal injury-surveillance design was implemented in one elite football academy from 2016/2017 to 2021/2022. Injuries were recorded in the club’s medical database using the international consensus time-loss definition. Injury incidence per 1000 h was calculated for overall exposure, training, and matches, and injuries were analyzed by diagnosis, mechanism, recurrence, and severity. Across the study period, 331 injuries were recorded. Overall injury incidence was 6.95/1000 h, with markedly higher incidence in matches (20.61/1000 h) than training (5.82/1000 h). Seasonal incidence ranged from 4.49/1000 h in 2019/2020 to 9.31/1000 h in 2021/2022. The proportion of injured players ranged from 48% to 76% per season. The most frequent injuries were contusions and muscle cramps/DOMS, followed by ligament injuries, tendinosis, and muscle ruptures. Knee, thigh, ankle, and hip/groin were the most affected regions. Most diagnoses showed a predominantly non-contact pattern. These findings support targeted prevention and load-management strategies in elite youth football. Full article

Although Flag Football (FF) is growing worldwide, the literature to guide sports sciences in preventing injuries is scarce. The aim of this study was to analyse how anthropometric characteristics were associated with injury in elite FF players. Athletes completed a full profile according to the International Society of Advances in Kinanthropometry (ISAK), including weight, height, sitting height, arm span length, skinfolds, girths, length and breadth bones, and an injury questionnaire was administered. Logistic regression models and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves were conducted. In total, 108 FF national team players, 34 female (26.7 ± 4.3 years old) and 74 male (26.9 ± 5.1 years old), participated. Of these, 62% FF players reported injuries. Relaxed arm and flexed and contracted arm girths are related to increased or reduced injury risks (Odds = 2.932, p = 0.008; Odds = 0.335, p = 0.009, respectively), while longer tibia length and higher muscle mass also increase the risk (Odds = 1.407, p = 0.034; Odds = 1.223, p = 0.010, respectively). Specific cut-off points were defined by sex, such as hip circumference, established at 103 cm in the Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) model for males, increasing the risk by 5 times. Anthropometric characteristics were related to injury incidence and could be used by sports science practitioners as an efficient decision-making tool to describe and analyse the static and dynamic components of FF players in injury prevention. Full article

Background/Objectives: Increasing training demands in women’s football have heightened interest in female-specific health characteristics, including menstrual health. The aim of this study was to describe menstrual-cycle characteristics and injury history in adult amateur female football players using selected items of the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), with particular focus on prolonged absence of menstrual bleeding and training-associated menstrual changes. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 118 adult amateur (non-elite) female football players (mean age 24.41 ± 4.50 years). Participants reported mean weekly training hours of 4.88 ± 2.45, consistent with amateur-level competitive and recreational participation. Selected items of the LEAF-Q were used, rather than the complete questionnaire; therefore, findings should be interpreted as descriptive indicators of menstrual health and injury history rather than a comprehensive LEA screening. Results: Most participants reported normal menstruation (95.76%), and menarche most commonly occurred between 12 and 14 years of age (92.37%). A history of ≥3 consecutive months without menstrual bleeding (clinically meaningful amenorrhea) was reported by 12.71% of players, while 4.24% reported such an episode at the time of the survey. Training-associated changes in menstrual bleeding were reported by 52.54% of participants, most commonly shorter and lighter bleeding; less frequently, cessation of bleeding (8.93%) or heavier and prolonged bleeding (1.79%) was reported. Injuries in the preceding 12 months were common, with 71.19% reporting one or two injuries and 28.81% reporting three or four injuries. Conclusions: Despite a high prevalence of self-reported regular menstrual cycles, a notable proportion of adult amateur female football players reported episodes of prolonged absence of menstrual bleeding and training-associated changes in bleeding characteristics. These findings highlight the variability of menstrual-cycle characteristics in the context of football training and support the inclusion of routine, confidential menstrual-health monitoring as part of broader athlete health management in women’s football. Football-related injuries were common over the preceding 12 months, reflecting the substantial musculoskeletal demands of the sport. Full article

This paper examines the organizational competitiveness and strategic transformation of an elite professional football entity in the Greek Super League during the period 2018–2020, using Panathinaikos as a case study within a comparative framework including Olympiacos, AEK, and PAOK. This period marked a phase of enforced reorientation for Panathinaikos due to UEFA sanctions for overdue debts and the club’s exclusion from European competitions, which resulted in extensive squad renewal and increased reliance on academy-developed players. The aim of the study is to identify the factors shaping Panathinaikos’ strategic position, diagnose the causes of its lagging performance, and suggest directions for strategic repositioning. To this end, a multi-criteria framework based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is employed, integrating qualitative assessments, expert judgements, and quantitative performance indicators through pairwise comparisons, weight calculations, and consistency checks. The analysis is based on a conceptually original model that defines the Football Organization as an integrated system composed of two interdependent subsystems: the Football Club and the Football Team (competitive subsystem). This approach highlights that league standings do not always reflect overall performance dynamics, as they are influenced by both organizational and on-field factors. The findings indicate that Panathinaikos is lagging behind in key areas and that a structural discontinuity between the Club and the Team limits strategic coherence and the ability to create a sustainable competitive advantage. The study concludes with proposals for restructuring and strategic repositioning, while the proposed model functions as a transferable decision-support tool for assessing organizational competitiveness, with broader applicability to complex organizational systems beyond professional football. Full article

Background/Objectives: The primary outcome of this 8-week randomized, controlled, parallel trial was to assess longitudinal shifts in gut microbiota structure and predicted metabolic potential in 45 elite football players following protein supplementation. Methods: Participants combined resistance training with daily intake (30 g) of whey protein concentrate (WPC), pea protein isolate (PPI), rice protein isolate (RPI), or a plant-protein blend (MIX). For the acquisition of prokaryotic metataxonomic data, the V3–V8 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT). Functional potential was inferred through the MACADAM database and STAMP software. Strict dietary monitoring and gravimetric adherence checks were performed to isolate the intervention effect. Results: While microbial alpha-diversity indices (Chao1, Shannon, Simpson) remained stable across all groups, significant source-specific shifts in taxonomic structure and predicted metabolic activity were identified. Whey protein concentrate (WPC) was associated with an increase in Bacteroidetes abundance and greater balance within the microbial community structure, whereas pea protein isolate (PPI) and the MIX correlated with reduced fermentative bacteria and elevated taxa potentially involved in cadaverine biosynthesis. Rice protein isolate (RPI) supplementation was associated with a higher predicted representation of taxa involved in succinate-to-butyrate fermentation pathways. These functional markers and differential responses of selected bacterial groups to particular protein types were observed. Conclusions: The data indicate complex interactions between supplement type, exposure duration, and microbiome response, underscoring the necessity for individualized dietary recommendations and supplementation strategies to optimize gut health and training adaptation in professional football players. Full article

Coaches in professional football need to estimate how many minutes a player can tolerate in a match before relevant fatigue occurs. This study aimed to develop a framework to translate monitoring information into individualised, minute-based fatigue thresholds. Over four seasons in an elite club, external load (total distance, high-speed running, mechanical work) and heart rate were collected in training. Machine-learning-derived fitness and fatigue indices were computed and combined with 7- and 28-day load variables in a Random Forest regression model predicting match minutes. The trained model was then used to simulate four fatigue conditions by fixing the match-day fatigue index (z-FA_match = 0, −1, −2, −3). In an independent test season, the model showed a mean absolute error of 22.5 min and R² = 0.17 for playing time prediction, with z-FA_match as the most influential predictor. Simulated fatigue thresholds occurred in an ordered way (0 = 57.1, −1 = 64.9, −2 = 84.8, −3 = 84.4) and differed across season period, playing position, overall seasonal minutes, and return-to-play status. Integrating external load with fitness and fatigue indices via machine learning can provide individualised estimates of when players are likely to reach fatigue states, supporting decisions on selection, substitutions, and return-to-play management. Full article

Background: The use of implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) in elite athletes following sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) or the diagnosis of high-risk cardiac conditions presents a complex interplay of medical, psychological, and legal challenges. Despite evolving guidelines, data on clinical outcomes and return-to-sport (RTS) trajectories in elite athletes remain limited. Objective: To describe the clinical profiles, management strategies, and career outcomes of elite athletes who received ICDs. Methods: A retrospective multilingual media and literature search was performed up to January 2026 to identify elite athletes with ICDs. Inclusion criteria required evidence of professional or Olympic-level competition, confirmed ICD implantation, and sufficient clinical and career data. Cases were analyzed for demographics, underlying diagnosis, prevention type, post-ICD outcomes, and RTS status. Results: Thirty-seven elite athletes were identified (mean age 25.8 ± 4.3 years). The most common sport was football (n = 25). Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, non-ischemic LV scar, and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy were the most frequent diagnoses, although 49% of etiologies remained unspecified. ICDs were implanted for secondary prevention in 70% of cases. Following ICD implantation, 25 athletes (68%) completed RTS, including 24 (65%) at the professional level. Among these, nine experienced shocks, and four ultimately discontinued competition. The sole fatality occurred in an athlete who had voluntarily explanted the ICD. Conclusions: A substantial proportion of elite athletes with ICDs successfully return to high-level sport, but clinical outcomes, risk tolerance, and legal frameworks remain variable. These findings support continued shifts towards personalized shared decision making and highlight the need for standardized, sport-specific RTS protocols, long-term registries, and psychosocial support in this population. Full article

Introduction: Ball velocity is a critical determinant of shot effectiveness in football, yet its influence on advanced post-shot metrics, such as expected shot impact timing (xSIT) and expected goals on target (xGOT), remains poorly understood, particularly in the context of sex-specific differences. This study examined the relationship between ball velocity and these metrics in men’s and women’s elite European tournaments. Methods: A total of 2174 shots were analyzed from all matches of the 2024 UEFA Men’s EURO (n = 1305) and 2025 UEFA Women’s EURO (n = 869), classified as goal shots on target, non-goal shots on target, and shots off target. Ball velocity was measured for each shot, and its associations with xSIT, our own xGOT model and the StatsBomb xGOT model were quantified using correlation coefficients. Results: Ball velocity differed significantly between sexes (p < 0.001), with higher values in men, and goal shots on target exhibited lower velocities than non-goal or off-target shots, indicating a speed–accuracy trade-off. Only xSIT and our own xGOT model were sensitive to ball velocity, reflecting sex-specific differences (p < 0.001). When comparing shot types across advanced metrics, a consistent trend was observed in both tournaments: xSIT showed no significant differences between goal and non-goal shots, whereas both xGOT models were higher for goal shots on target. Correlations indicated a moderate positive relationship between xSIT and ball velocity, and moderate negative correlations for both xGOT models, slightly stronger in men. Conclusions: Ball velocity is a critical factor influencing shot performance and advanced post-shot metrics, with notable sex-specific differences. Full article

Hip and groin injuries are common in elite football, and reduced isometric adductor strength has been identified as a key risk factor. Therefore, reliable and valid field-based methods for assessing hip adduction strength are essential for effective monitoring and injury prevention. This study aimed to evaluate the intra-rater reliability and construct validity of a hand-held dynamometer (HHD) compared with the ForceFrame (FFS) during the adductor squeeze test in elite youth football players. Thirty-eight male academy athletes completed two testing sessions four weeks apart, performing maximal isometric adductor squeezes using both devices. Relative reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), and construct validity was evaluated using paired t-tests, Bland–Altman analysis, and linear regression. The HHD demonstrated excellent intra-rater reliability (ICC = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.82–0.95) and the FFS showed good reliability (ICC = 0.85, 95% CI: 0.71–0.92). Paired t-tests revealed no significant differences between devices, and regression analysis confirmed no proportional bias, indicating strong agreement and construct validity. These findings demonstrate that the HHD provides valid and reliable measurements of isometric hip adduction strength and may serve as a practical, portable, and cost-effective alternative to fixed dynamometry for field-based strength assessment, rehabilitation monitoring, and injury-prevention screening in elite football environments. Full article