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Advances in Assessment of Physical Performance

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomedical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 January 2025 | Viewed by 13507

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Dr. Elena Amaricai

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Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Medicine and Rheumatology, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Victor Babeş University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timişoara, Romania
Interests: rehabilitation medicine; musculoskeletal disorders; clinical rheumatology; physical therapy; pediatric rehabilitation; quality of life research; kinesiology
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Dr. Roxana Ramona Onofrei

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Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Medicine and Rheumatology, Research Center for Assessment of Human Motion, Functionality and Disability, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
Interests: balance assessment; dual-task performance; injury prevention; sports rehabilitation
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Dr. Oana Suciu

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Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Medicine and Rheumatology, Research Center for Assessment of Human Motion, Functionality and Disability, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
Interests: orthopedic rehabilitation; gait analysis; plantar pressure assessment; quality of life; patient reported outcomes
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Dr. Alexandru Florian Crisan

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Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Medicine and Rheumatology, Research Center for Assessment of Human Motion, Functionality and Disability, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
Interests: respiratory functional assessment; respiratory muscles assessment; respiratory muscle training; CPET; geriatrics; balance impairment; chronic respiratory diseases; pulmonary rehabilitation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Physical performance is an essential part of everyday functioning, ranging from activities of daily living to more complex actions that require a combination of skills. The assessment of physical performance is of interest for both patients who follow rehabilitation programs and healthy subjects. Physical performance evaluation in sports is mandatory for reaching the best competitional results in a safe and efficient way.

Nowadays, assessment tools include modern technological devices that are continually expanding. These equipment and software offer valuable objective data for both rehabilitation (in case of patients’ assessment) and sports teams. The assessment of physical performance is significant because it offers the possibility to adapt the rehabilitation program or to tailor specific training activities for athletes.

Dr. Elena Amaricai
Dr. Roxana Ramona Onofrei
Dr. Oana Suciu
Dr. Alexandru Florian Crisan
Guest Editors

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Keywords

gait
running
jumping
muscular strength
cardiopulmonary exercise testing
technologies
equipment
software

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Targeted Muscle Strength: Impact on Speed, Endurance, and Performance in Female Volleyball

by Ștefan Adrian Martin, Mihăiță George Gavra and Roxana Maria Martin-Hadmaș

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10951; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310951 - 25 Nov 2024

Viewed by 226

Abstract

This study examines the influence of muscle strength on performance metrics in volleyball, addressing the need to understand how specific and non-specific strength training impacts athletic capabilities. A cohort of athletes underwent various strength tests, including squats (SQs), bench presses (BPs), and deadlifts (DLs), to assess their force and power during various forms of test. Lactate thresholds (LT₁ and LT₂) were also measured to evaluate aerobic and anaerobic capacities. The median speed at LT₁ was 1.80 m/s, and LT₂ was determined at a mean velocity of 2.56 m/s. Notably, a correlation was found between SQ performance and total points scored (p = 0.040, r = 0.285), while upper body strength was strongly correlated with performance metrics, showing significant relationships with points scored (p = 0.0001, r = 0.690) and peak power during BPs (p = 0.0001, r = 0.587). The findings suggest that targeted strength training enhances physical capabilities and improves technical and tactical performance in volleyball, highlighting the critical role of muscle strength in athlete selection and training strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Assessment of Physical Performance)

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11 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Exercise Doses Through an Augmented Reality Exergame in Older Adults: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

by Javier Bravo-Aparicio, Patricia Domínguez-López, Cristina Díaz-González, Diego Martín-Caro Álvarez, David Martín-Caro Álvarez and Hector Beltran-Alacreu

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10592; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210592 - 17 Nov 2024

Viewed by 405

Abstract

(1) Background: Growth in the use of video games has spurred innovations in the health sector, especially through exergames, which promote physical activity using interactive technologies like augmented reality. Exergames are shown to enhance exercise motivation and engagement, yet enjoyment remains inconsistent across studies. This pilot study aims to provide evidence on how different exergaming doses affect exercise heart rate, perceived exertion, adverse effects, and enjoyment in older adults. (2) Methods: A pilot randomized controlled trial was conducted to compare different doses of exercise through video games (13 vs. 28 min) in older adults living in a nursing home. A single bout of exergaming was provided to assess the outcomes: heart rate, rate of perceived exertion, physical activity enjoyment scale score, and adverse effects. (3) Results: Thirty-two older adults were recruited. This study revealed no significant differences in heart rate between groups (p = 0.1). There is a weak correlation between the rate of perceived exertion and the level of enjoyment (r_s = −0.193) and between the total time of the intervention and the incidence of adverse effects (r_s = 0.295). (4) Conclusions: The use of a higher dose of exergaming is effective in achieving moderate physical intensity. Also, the results suggest the intervention was generally well tolerated and enjoyed by older adults, with no serious adverse effects reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Assessment of Physical Performance)

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14 pages, 1402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Age Is a New Indicator of Long-Ball Kicking Performance in Young Soccer Players: Analysing Kinanthropometry, Flexibility and Strength

by Antonio Cejudo, José Manuel Armada-Zarco and Riccardo Izzo

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 9052; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14199052 - 7 Oct 2024

Viewed by 960

Abstract

(1) Background: The kick of the ball in soccer is considered one of the most important technical gestures in soccer. Despite this, there is little evidence on ball-striking performance factors in base soccer. The main objectives of the present study were to identify the potential factors of long-ball kicking (LBK) performance and to determine the target training cut-off for LBK performance in young soccer players. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted with 31 soccer players, with ages ranging from 12 to 18 years. Age, anthropometric data, sport experience, range of motion (ROM) and maximal isometric strength (MIS) of the lower limb were noted. Kick-of-the-ball performance was assessed by maximum ball displacement per kick. A k-mean cluster analysis determined two groups according to ball-kicking performance: low group (LPG-LBK) and high group (HPG-LBK). (3) Results: Differences were found between both groups in age, body mass, body mass index, leg length and knee flexion ROM (BF10 ≤ 6.33; δ ≥ 0.86 (moderate or higher)). Among the factors discussed above, age was the strongest predictor of ball-striking performance (odds ratio = 2.867; p = 0.003). The optimal cut-off for age predicting those players most likely to have a higher ball-striking performance was determined to be 13.5 years (p = 0.001; area under the curve = 85.3%). (4) Conclusions: Age over 13.5 increases the chances of a higher optimal ball-striking performance. The flexibility (knee flexion ROM) and strength (knee flexors) must be specifically trained in soccer players beginning at an early age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Assessment of Physical Performance)

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16 pages, 1452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decisive Shots: Unveiling Disparities between Winning and Losing Pairs in High-Level Men’s Padel

by Rafael Conde-Ripoll, Bernardino J. Sánchez-Alcaraz, Ivan Martín-Miguel, Álvaro Bustamante-Sánchez, Miguel Crespo and Adrián Escudero-Tena

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8499; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188499 - 20 Sep 2024

Viewed by 606

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This study aimed to describe and distinguish shot characteristics between set winning and losing pairs in high-level male padel players from Finland. Between 2022 and 2023, we analyzed 4469 points across 38 matches, examining factors such as match type, set outcome, effectiveness of the last shot, generator of forced error, and shot type. Results showed that set-winning players produced more winners (CSR = 7.7; CSR = 6.8) and committed fewer forced (CSR = 4.2; CSR = 2.8) and unforced errors (CSR = 4.0; CSR = 4.3) compared to set losing players, both in pressure training and competition matches. In addition, irrespective of the set outcome, these players achieved more winners and generated more forced errors with the smash, bandeja, forehand volley, and backhand volley. Nevertheless, a significant number of errors (both forced and unforced) are committed with the bandeja and volley (forehand and backhand). Furthermore, notable errors (forced and unforced) are observed in shots following one bounce and without a wall rebound, particularly in the forehand, backhand, and return. In conclusion, the ability to produce winners while minimizing forced and unforced errors proves to be crucial for securing sets in high-level men’s padel. Full article

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11 pages, 1060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Limitations in Maximum Intensity Front Crawl in Swimmers with Down Syndrome

by Giampiero Merati, Damiano Formenti, Claudio Gandola, Paolo Castiglioni, Linda Casalini, Athos Trecroci, Luca Cavaggioni, Pietro Luigi Invernizzi, Umberto Menichino and Raffaele Scurati

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8387; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188387 - 18 Sep 2024

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Individuals with Down Syndrome exhibit deficits in muscle strength and cardiovascular adaptation, which limit athletic performance. We compared a maximum-intensity 50 m front crawl test between competitive male swimmers with Down Syndrome (SDS; n = 11; 26.5 ± 5.6 years; m ± SD) and a control group of swimmers (CNT; n = 11; 27.1 ± 4.0 years) with similar training routines (about 5 h/week). Wearable sternal sensors measured their heart rate and 3D accelerometry. The regularity index Sample Entropy (SampEn) was calculated using the X component of acceleration. The total times (SDS: 58.91 ± 13.68 s; CNT: 32.55 ± 3.70 s) and stroke counts (SDS: 66.1 ± 9.6; CNT: 51.4 ± 7.4) were significantly higher in the SDS group (p < 0.01). The heart rate was lower in the SDS group during immediate (SDS: 129 ± 15 bpm; CNT: 172 ± 11 bpm) and delayed recovery (30 s, SDS: 104 ± 23 bpm; CNT: 145 ± 21 bpm; 60 s, SDS: 79 ± 27 bpm; CNT: 114 ± 27 bpm) (p < 0.01 for all the comparisons). The SampEn of sternal acceleration showed no differences between the groups and between 0–25 m and 25–50 m. Body pitch correlated strongly with performance in the SDSs (R² = 0.632, p < 0.01), but during the first 25 m only. The high-intensity front crawl performances differed between the SDS and CNT athletes in terms of time, biomechanics, and training adaptation, suggesting the need for tailored training to improve swimming efficiency in SDSs. Full article

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10 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Bilateral Deficits in Elbow Flexion Strength: Functional vs. Analytical Assessment

by Ignacio Pelayo-Tejo, Luis Chirosa-Ríos, Raquel Escobar-Molina, Amador García-Ramos, Indya del-Cuerpo, Ignacio Chirosa-Ríos and Daniel Jerez-Mayorga

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7808; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177808 - 3 Sep 2024

Viewed by 558

Abstract

Background: this study aimed to identify the influence of postural stability on upper-limb bilateral deficit (BLD), and to compare the assessment of strength generated during elbow flexion functionally vs. analytically in the dominant and nondominant arms. Methods: Twenty men participated in two sessions to evaluate the maximum isometric strength of elbow flexion. This evaluation was performed unilaterally with the dominant arm, unilaterally with the non-dominant arm, and bilaterally, both in the sitting position (SiP) and the standing position (StP). Results: The BLD when peak force was considered was lower for StP (−6.44 ± 5.58%) compared to SiP (−10.73 ± 6.17%) (p = 0.007). Regarding peak force, statistically significant differences were observed for comparisons between dominance (p < 0.001) and Position*Dominance (p = 0.02), but mean force differences were only observed for the dominance factor (p < 0.001). Greater mean and peak forces were always produced bilaterally compared to unilaterally (p < 0.001). Conclusions: a decrease in postural stability by performing elbow flexion exercises in a standing position accentuates BLD of peak force. Full article

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16 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Principal Component Approach and Relationship between Nomination Scale for Identification of Football Talent and Physical Fitness in Young Soccer Players

by Santiago Castro-Infantes, Víctor M. Soto Hermoso, Ricardo Martín-Moya, Filipe Manuel Clemente, Hugo Sarmento, Alfonso Castillo-Rodríguez and Francisco Tomás González-Fernández

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7569; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177569 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 725

Abstract

The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the physical capabilities of young soccer players and their performance in game-related variables as assessed through the Nomination Scale for Identifying Football Talent (NSIFT) questionnaire. A total of 80 young soccer players, with an average age of 10.70 ± 1.02 years, participated in the research. Each player underwent a comprehensive assessment session that included the 5-0-5 Change of Direction (COD) test, the Illinois Agility Test, and the Countermovement Jump (CMJ) test. These assessments were selected to evaluate critical physical attributes essential for soccer performance such as agility, explosive strength, and the ability to change direction rapidly. To analyze the data, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), a statistical technique that reduces the dimensionality of large datasets while retaining as much variance as possible, was employed. The PCA results indicated strong sample validity as confirmed by the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measurement index, which assesses the adequacy of the sample size for factor analysis. The analysis revealed two principal components: development and disposition, which together accounted for 73% of the total variance in the data. The development component encompasses various physical attributes that contribute to a player’s growth and improvement, including strength, speed, and agility. Conversely, the disposition component reflects innate qualities and cognitive skills that predispose players to excel in soccer such as decision making and game awareness. This research highlights the importance of incorporating physical assessments into talent identification processes, providing objective measures that complement subjective evaluations. This study contributed to the literature on talent identification in soccer, emphasizing the need for a multidisciplinary approach to nurture young athletes effectively. Future research should continue to explore the interplay between physical and cognitive skills in soccer to enhance player development and success in competitive environments. Full article

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10 pages, 808 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Dynamic Analysis of Cortisol Hormone, Alpha-Amylase Enzyme, and Blood Lactate Levels during a Rowing Ergometer 6 km Race

by Mate Kuko, Šime Veršić, Toni Modrić, Vladimir Pavlinović, Jakša Škomrlj, Mia Perić, Dora Marić, Nikola Foretić and Zoran Nikolovski

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6799; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156799 - 4 Aug 2024

Viewed by 732

Abstract

Rowing races require extreme physical and psychological effort from every athlete. This study aimed to determine the dynamics of the salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase, as well as blood lactate throughout the specific load represented by a 6 km rowing race, conducted on a rowing ergometer. The sample consisted of 11 junior and senior rowers from HVK Gusar in Split (n = 11) who actively competed at club and international levels. Variables consisted of three repeated oral samples of the hormone cortisol and the enzyme alpha-amylase determined in saliva and three repeated blood lactate samples. Potential differences in the levels of the studied variables at different time points were determined using a repeated-measures ANOVA test. The results showed different dynamics of hormonal (cortisol) and metabolic (alpha-amylase and lactates) variables. All variables experienced a significant post-race increase, while other changes were not significant. The results highlighted that high-intensity rowing causes an increase in the body’s cortisol, alpha-amylase, and lactate levels. This should be implemented in rowing training to find the right balance between high and low-intensity rowing, enabling athletes’ progression while reducing the risk of overtraining. Full article

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13 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Music Selection on Motivation and Performance during Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing

by Dragana Labudović, Stanimir Stojiljković, Ana Orlić, Milan Matić, Slavoljub Uzunović, Saša Bubanj, Tatiana Dobrescu, Marija Macura and Dejana Popović

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6751; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156751 - 2 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1397

Abstract

Background: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of applying synchronized music and appropriate music selection on motivation for exercise and achieving better results in individuals of different fitness levels. Methods: The study included a total of 20 female participants, who for certain analyses were divided into two groups with slightly different levels of aerobic fitness: students from the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education (n = 10, age 23.0 ± 2.8), and middle-aged adult women exercising recreationally (n = 10, age 38.3 ± 11.6). Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) was conducted using a treadmill and gas analysis equipment, and motivational music qualities were assessed using the BMRI-2 questionnaire. The procedure included an initial maximal CPET test, echocardiography, and spirometric tests, followed by an interview to select preferred music tracks. A second CPET test was then performed with the chosen motivational music. The Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale was used in both tests. Results: The internal consistency of the questionnaire was confirmed with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.982. The synchronized motivational music significantly improved cardiopulmonary parameters such as peak oxygen consumption (peak VO₂), oxygen consumption (VO₂) at the second ventilatory threshold (VT2), peak heart rate (peak HR), test duration, and reduced perceived exertion (RPE) at the beginning of the test and at the intensity level corresponding to the VT2. Negligible differences were noted between students and recreational athletes, so it can be assumed that music had an equal impact on these two groups of subjects. Conclusions: The study concluded that synchronous motivational music significantly enhances cardiopulmonary performance and reduces perceived fatigue during physical exertion by serving as a key motivational element and facilitating more economical movement. Full article

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9 pages, 1479 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Validation of a Simple Device for the Evaluation of Ankle Plantar- and Dorsi-Flexor Forces Consistent with Standard Clinical Evaluations

by Giulia Rogati, Paolo Caravaggi, Andrea Martelli, Roberta Fognani, Alberto Leardini and Massimiliano Baleani

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2461; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062461 - 14 Mar 2024

Viewed by 943

Abstract

Measuring the forces produced at the ankle joint is critical to diagnose musculoskeletal pathologies. In standard clinical practice, ankle force is often assessed through manual joint manipulation and visual observation. This study introduces a simple apparatus, the Ankle Force Transducer (AFT), based on a uniaxial load cell capable of measuring ankle forces in conditions consistent with clinical evaluations. The AFT can be placed at the extremity of any examination couch to measure ankle forces in plantarflexion and dorsiflexion. The repeatability of the AFT was assessed in 30 healthy subjects across three sessions and in two knee postures. One patient with foot-drop condition was evaluated using the same apparatus. The intra-session coefficient of variation for plantarflexion and dorsiflexion forces was around 5% and 8%, respectively. The dominant leg exhibited greater forces than the non-dominant one, and the fully extended knee resulted in significantly larger forces with respect to the flexed knee (p < 0.001). The foot-drop patient showed a 90% reduction in dorsiflexion force in the affected limb. The AFT appears to be a user-friendly tool used to measure ankle forces, which has the potential to provide more repeatable and objective measurements of ankle forces with respect to operator-dependent evaluations. Full article

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12 pages, 830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Exercise Testing with Arm Crank Ergometer Substitute for Cycle Ergometer to Evaluate Exercise Capacity?

by Miwako Deguchi, Hisayo Yokoyama, Nobuko Hongu, Atsuya Toya, Takahiro Matsutake, Yuta Suzuki, Daiki Imai, Yuko Yamazaki, Masanori Emoto and Kazunobu Okazaki

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12926; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312926 - 3 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1837

Abstract

Using the upper limbs to test cardiopulmonary exercise can be a useful option in the case of individuals who are unable to pedal a bicycle due to lower limb injury or disability. We evaluated whether exercise testing with the upper limbs can be used equivalently to that of the lower limbs in assessing exercise capacity. Nine collegiate rowers and eight collegiate cyclists underwent incremental exercise testing with an arm crank ergometer (ACE) and cycle ergometer (CE). Heart rate (HR) and oxygen uptake (VO₂) were monitored throughout the tests. Segmental muscle mass and flow-mediated dilation of brachial artery were measured to assess the training status of the upper limbs. The muscle mass of the brachium, upper limb, and trunk were greater in the rowers than in the cyclists (p < 0.05). The correlations between HR and VO₂ was significantly different depending on exercise modalities, ACE and CE, in both groups (p < 0.001). The estimated maximal VO₂ using the correlation formula and age-predicted maximal HR was significantly lower in the exercise testing group with ACE than in the group with CE in rowers and cyclists (41.7 ± 7.3 vs. 52.6 ± 8.6 mL/kg/min, p = 0.010 and 35.5 ± 14.2 vs. 50.4 ± 13.4 mL/kg/min, p = 0.011, respectively). The results suggested that exercise capacity assessed by exercise testing with ACE is underestimated, regardless of the training status of the upper limbs. Further research is needed to verify factors which affect the correlations between HR and VO₂ during upper- and lower-limb exercise. Full article

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26 pages, 591 KiB

Open AccessReview

Can Complex Training Improve Acute and Long-Lasting Performance in Basketball Players? A Systematic Review

by Enrique Flórez Gil, Alejandro Vaquera, Rodrigo Ramírez-Campillo, Javier Sanchez-Sanchez and Alejandro Rodríguez Fernández

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6839; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156839 - 5 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3165

Abstract

Basketball demands a sophisticated blend of tactical, technical, physical, and psychological skills, and various methods have been proposed to prepare players for these demands, including resistance training to enhance strength, power, speed, agility, and endurance. Complex training (CT) integrates diverse strength training methodologies by combining heavy-resistance exercises (e.g., squat at 90% of one repetition maximum) with high-velocity movements or plyometrics, both sharing the same biomechanical pattern. However, the optimal application of CT in basketball remains uncertain due to diverse protocols and a lack of consensus in the literature. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the acute and chronic effects of CT interventions on physical fitness performance in basketball players and identify the most effective characteristics of moderators. Methods: A bibliographic search was conducted using PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science databases following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines using the PICOS strategy. Results: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, three articles analyzed acute effects, and thirteen analyzed chronic effects. The total number of participants in the studies analyzing acute effects was 50, while for studies examining chronic effects, it was 362. Conclusions: Acutely, CT triggers post-activation potentiation and enhances sprint performance when coupled with brief rest intervals. Over time, these acute improvements contribute to more substantial, long-lasting benefits. Chronic effects of CT improve strength, as evidenced by enhanced 1 RM performance, jumps, sprints, and core muscle strength. Full article

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