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Evolution is reticulate. Reticulation increases diversity and complexity on the different levels of the evolutionary hierarchy. In addition to the tendency for diversity and complexity to increase in unchecked evolutionary systems by ongoing divergence (‘Zero-Force Evolutionary Law’, ‘Biology’s First Law’), reticulate evolution, therefore, acts as a second mechanism for the establishment of evolutionary novelty and the rise in biodiversity and biocomplexity (‘Biology’s Second Law’). This provides the raw material for subsequent diversity-confining drift and selection processes. In order to fully appreciate reticulation processes as part of an updated paradigm of evolutionary biology, a research programme on the topic should encompass the identification of the fundamental evolutionary entities as vertices and the study of the relationships among these vertices as edges in the resulting network architectures. Additionally, along with surveys on the underlying determinants, this will lead to the study of emergent boundary conditions for reticulations and for the porosity of evolutionary entities. Finally, the programme should address the question whether there are equilibrium conditions between the complete fusion and complete isolation of evolutionary entities (‘Goldilocks Zones’) that foster reticulate evolution. As tools in this research programme, machine learning and modelling approaches, along with methods in the field of network reconstruction, transcriptomics, epigenetics, and karyology, are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Evolutionary Biology)

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15 pages, 3606 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microfluidic Concentration Manipulation via Controllable AC Electroosmotic Flow

by Jingliang Lv, Yulong Pei and Jianqi Sun

Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111288 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

The ability to precisely prepare microfluids with targeted concentrations is critical for numerous applications, including protein crystallization and drug efficacy evaluation. This study presents an efficient microfluidic method for the continuous preparation of fluids at desired concentrations utilizing AC electroosmosis (ACEO). Two miscible fluids of different initial concentrations are introduced through separate inlets. Target concentrations are achieved through ACEO-driven mixing, where fluid manipulation via electric signal and flow velocity control enables precise concentration adjustment at the outlet. To elucidate the concentration control mechanism via ACEO, we develop a three-dimensional numerical model coupling electric, flow, and concentration fields. Our results demonstrate that concentration modulation is significantly influenced by intrinsic fluid properties and external control parameters, including fluid viscosity, conductivity, axial fluid velocity, driving voltage, and signal frequency. Specifically, higher fluid viscosity and conductivity dampen electroosmotic flow, necessitating increased voltage to achieve target concentration. Axial fluid velocity determines the residence time in the mixing zone, directly affecting mixing efficiency and concentration control effect. The intensity of ACEO flow increases with applied voltage, enabling tunable mixing performance and outlet concentration. Overall, the simplicity of device design combined with precise concentration manipulation makes this method particularly attractive for applications requiring accurate fluid preparation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Development of Micro/Nanofluidic Devices, 2nd Edition)

18 pages, 1109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Diversity of Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) from Portugal, Mozambique and Timor-Leste

by Joana B. Guimarães, Maria Cristina Simões-Costa, Milton Pinho, Celina Maria Godinho, Paula Sá Pereira, João Neves Martins, Ana Ribeiro-Barros, Pedro Talhinhas and Maria Manuela Veloso

Biology 2025, 14(11), 1602; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14111602 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Portugal contributed to the global diffusion of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam.). Although it is of minor importance on the Portuguese mainland, it is one of the most common crops in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos and is highly relevant in the Portuguese ex-colonies Mozambique and Timor-Leste. We analyzed the genetic diversity and population structure of sweetpotato from these five geographic provenances using twelve nuclear simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. We studied 45 accessions, 15 of which were collected from farmers’ fields in these five regions and 30 of which are held at “Banco de Germoplasma de Moçambique”. The SSR markers showed a high level of polymorphism and a high number of alleles per locus. Population structure analyses using Bayesian clustering (STRUCTURE) grouped accessions from farmers’ fields into two groups and divided samples of “Banco de Germoplasma de Moçambique” into three groups. A principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), based on the Bruvo distance, supported the population structure analysis. Concerning the genebank accessions, the two analyses indicated three clusters, all of them containing Mozambican landraces. From our results, it may be concluded that sweetpotato populations from the three countries do not share a common genetic background, despite the shared history of the countries. Full article

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21 pages, 3890 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Sky View Factor on Seasonal Microclimate and Thermal Comfort Variability Across Urban Campus Streets and Buildings

by Zhengyang Yao, Penghui Wang, Yunxi Tian, Yichuan Zhang, Qingjiao Zhang, Xiaobing Wang, Ping Wang and Qisheng Han

Buildings 2025, 15(22), 4121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224121 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

University campuses feature spatially diverse environments where thermal performance varies seasonally and spatially. In this study, we integrate field measurements with ENVI-met simulations to evaluate how sky view factor (SVF) influences microclimate and outdoor thermal comfort-quantified via air temperature (Ta), mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), wind speed (WS), relative humidity (RH), physiologically equivalent temperature (PET), and the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI)-within urban street and urban building spaces on a temperate Chinese campus. The results reveal contrasting thermal responses: in summer, low-SVF urban street spaces (SVF_avg 0.075) exhibit moderate heat stress (PET_avg 34.5–39.5 °C) due to radiative trapping and limited ventilation, whereas high-SVF urban building spaces (SVF_avg 0.159) face greater heat load and stronger thermal stress, with peak PET exceeding 49.9 °C. In winter, high-SVF urban building spaces benefit from solar gain, improving thermal comfort. Statistical analyses indicate non-linear threshold effects of SVF on comfort indices, with summer comfort positively correlated at SVF > 0.2, and winter comfort negatively associated at SVF ≤ 0.4. These findings identify SVF as a key geometric predictor of seasonal thermal comfort in distinct campus spatial types, provide quantitative thresholds to guide climate-resilient campus planning in warm temperate zone. Full article

21 pages, 14137 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Analysis of Loess Slope Under Heavy Rainfall Considering Joint Effect—Case Study of Jianxi Landslide, China

by Jiahao Wang, Lei Zhang, Shi Zhao, Guoji Li and Haipeng Guo

Water 2025, 17(22), 3271; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223271 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Loess exhibits a pronounced reduction in strength under rainfall infiltration, making loess slopes highly susceptible to instability and failure during rainfall events. Although numerous studies have investigated the failure mechanisms of loess slopes under rainfall, most have overlooked the role of joints, which are intrinsic structural features of loess. To address this gap, this study selected the Jianxi landslide, located in Lingbao city of Henan province, as a representative case and employed a numerical simulation method to examine the influence of joints on the moisture fields and stability conditions of the Jianxi landslide. The results elucidate that the safety factor of the Jianxi landslide considering joints is 15.7% lower than the one measured without considering joints and identify the critical rainfall threshold leading to landslide instability to be 100 mm/d. Furthermore, when joints are considered, the sliding zone becomes deeper, indicating a larger landslide volume and more severe potential damage. This work provides new insights into the failure mechanism of loess landslides and offers a scientific basis for early warning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landslide on Hydrological Response)

23 pages, 14113 KB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Flow Fields and Patterns in Heterogeneous Aquifer Induced by Mine Water Injection and Storage Under Different Well Configurations

by Ge Chen, Heng Li, Xin Li, Li Zhang, Peishan Yuan, Hewen Ma, Zhimin Xu and Wanghua Sui

Water 2025, 17(22), 3270; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223270 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Mine water injection and storage (MWIS) represent a crucial method for the management of unconventional water resource in the mining regions of China. The flow fields and patterns within heterogeneity porous media during the MWIS process are complex and significantly influenced by well configurations. This study aims to offer a numerical perspective for the evaluation of MWIS flow fields and patterns associated with diverse well configurations in different heterogeneous aquifers. The simulation results of various well configuration scenarios, including vertical, slanted and horizontal wells, demonstrate that well configuration exerts a profound influence on the flow fields and patterns of MWIS. The injected mine water primarily spreads radially and groundwater level gradually diminishes as the distance from the wellbore increases in the vertical well. Conversely, horizontal wells can notably augment the contact area between the injected mine water and the aquifer, leading to a more uniform distribution of the flow field and higher injection efficiency. Slanted wells exhibit a combination of vertical and horizontal flow characteristics, which can be adjusted in accordance with specific geological conditions to optimize the MWIS effect. Overall, both horizontal and slanted wells exhibit water storage capacities that are approximately 1.77 to 2.65 times greater than that of vertical wells. Effective mine water capacity accumulates primarily during the initial phase, followed by a rapid decline in subsequent reserves. The results suggest that appropriate arrangement of well configurations and injection pressure can effectively enhance the MWIS efficiency. Hydraulic fracturing is the fundamental approach to sustaining MWIS capacity. This research provides a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for the design and optimization of MWIS, which is of great significance for the sustainable development of coal mines in the Ordos Basin, China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mine Water Environment and Remediation)

16 pages, 2447 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Stability of Propellants Modified with Eco-Friendly Plasticizers

by Katarzyna Cieślak, Monika Izabella Wycech and Waldemar Tomaszewski

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3033; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223033 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

The growing importance of sustainable technologies and environmental safety is promoting the implementation of green chemistry principles in the field of energetic materials. Traditionally, nitrocellulose-based propellants are plasticized with dibutyl phthalate (DBP), which is classified as a hazardous substance due to its toxicity and migration during storage. In this work, triethyl 2-acetylcitrate (ATEC) and tributyl 2-acetylcitrate (ATBC) were investigated as biodegradable and non-toxic alternatives to DBP. The objective of this study was to evaluate the thermal and chemical stability, physicochemical properties, and incorporation efficiency of these eco-friendly plasticizers in regard to propellants prepared from nitrocellulose of different origins and with nitrogen contents. The stability of the obtained propellants was assessed based on accelerated aging tests conducted in accordance with NATO STANAG 4582 and AOP-48 procedures. The results showed that both the ATEC- and ATBC-modified propellants meet the stability requirements corresponding to at least ten years of storage at 25 °C. The modified propellants showed slightly lower heats of combustion. Both plasticizers were effectively integrated into the nitrocellulose matrix without compromising density or stability. This study confirms that citric-acid-based plasticizers are promising green alternatives to conventional phthalates, offering improved environmental compatibility while maintaining the required performance and safety of nitrocellulose propellants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science)

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29 pages, 3900 KB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Pulsed Electric Field in Virgin Olive Oil Production: Impact on Oil Yield, Quality and Volatile Profile

by Klara Kraljić, Katarina Filipan, Sandra Balbino, Marko Obranović, Tomislava Vukušić Pavičić, Maja Jukić Špika, Višnja Stulić, Mia Ivanov, Zoran Herceg, Igor Stuparević, Mia Tokić, Marko Belavić and Dubravka Škevin

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(22), 12139; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152212139 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study investigated, for the first time, the effects of pulsed electric field (PEF) pretreatment—applied prior to malaxation at 2–7 kV/cm for 30–90—on oil yield, quality parameters, and volatile profiles of virgin olive oils (VOO) from four representative Croatian autochthonous varieties: Istarska Bjelica and Rosulja (Istria), and Levantinka and Oblica (Dalmatia). Mild PEF conditions significantly increased oil yield (2.5–36%), with the strongest effects observed in varieties with low baseline yields. Basic quality parameters were largely unaffected, but volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles were markedly altered. PEF increased VOCs from the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway, particularly at lower field strengths, and altered their composition, suggesting changes in the activity of the enzymes involved in their biosynthesis. Among these enzymes, LOX was analyzed, and its activity responded to PEF treatment in a cultivar-dependent manner. Furthermore, PEF generally reduced minor VOCs associated with oxidation and microbial activity. These findings demonstrate the potential of PEF as a non-thermal, sustainable technology for improving oil extraction efficiency while simultaneously enhancing the aroma profile of VOOs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Science and Technology)

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16 pages, 1358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of Heavy Metals in Indoor Dust for Health Risk Assessment in Macao

by Thomas M. T. Lei, Wenlong Ye, Yuyang Liu, Wan Hee Cheng, Altaf Hossain Molla, L.-W. Antony Chen and Shuiping Wu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(11), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16111294 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

The presence of heavy metals plays a significant role in indoor air quality, which poses a serious public health problem since most of the population spends over 90% of their time in indoor environments. This work investigates heavy metals in indoor dust across different occupational settings in Macao. Field sampling was conducted in five representative locations, which included restaurants, student dormitories, auto repair shops, offices, and parking security rooms, with a total of 11 samples collected in this study. Dust in the form of particulate matter was collected from air conditioning filters to quantify 14 heavy metal contents. The PMF model was applied for source apportionments of the heavy metals, while a health exposure model was used to assess health risks and evaluate the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks in the five representative workplaces. The PMF model identified six major pollution sources: traffic emissions (23.800%), building materials (21.600%), cooking activities (18.500%), chemicals (15.200%), electronic devices (12.300%), and outdoor seaport activities (8.600%). The health risk assessment showed that the overall non-carcinogenic risk (HI = 6.160 × 10⁻⁶ for inhalation, 1.720 × 10⁻³ for oral ingestion, and 2.270 × 10⁻⁵ for dermal contact) and total HI (1.749 × 10⁻³) and carcinogenic risk (6.570 × 10⁻⁹) were below the safety threshold, showing minimal health risk problems. Nevertheless, nickel and chromium were identified as the main contributors to potential long-term risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical and Chemical Characterization of Particulate Matter: Ambient, Personal, and Indoor Perspectives)

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28 pages, 49938 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geothermal Reservoir Parameter Identification by Wellbore–Reservoir Integrated Fluid and Heat Transport Modeling

by Fengyu Li, Xia Guo, Zhenxiang Xing, Haitao Cui and Xi Zhang

Water 2025, 17(22), 3269; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223269 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Efficient development of karst geothermal resources relies on the accurate identification of thermophysical and hydrogeological parameters. In this paper, the integrated wellbore–reservoir model of fluid and heat transport is applied to identify hydrothermal parameters of the karst geothermal system in Tianjin, China, based on multi-type field test data. A natural state model is conducted by fitting steady-state borehole temperature measurement results to identify formation thermal conductivity, while reservoir permeability is determined via the Gauss–Marquardt–Levenberg optimization algorithm based on dynamic temperature and pressure data from pumping tests. The parameter identification results indicate a reservoir permeability of 5.25 × 10⁻¹⁴ m² and a corrected bottom-hole temperature of 109 °C. Subsequently, productivity optimization for actual heating demands (1.33 × 10⁵ m²) yields an optimal heat extraction efficiency of 6.17 MW, with a flow rate of 80 m³/h, an injection well perforated length of 388 m, and an injection temperature of 30 °C. Additionally, addressing reservoir heterogeneity, the study finds that high-permeability zones between wells significantly shorten the safe operation duration of geothermal doublets, and reducing flow rate can mitigate thermal breakthrough risk to a certain extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

60 pages, 7411 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Methodology for Novel Algorithmic Modeling of Non-Spherical Particle Terminal Settling Velocities and Comprehensive Digital Image Analysis

by Kaan Yetilmezsoy, Fatih Ilhan and Emel Kıyan

Water 2025, 17(22), 3268; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223268 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Accurate prediction of settling velocities for irregular particles offers significant advantages in various fields, including more efficient water/wastewater treatment, environmental pollution control, industrial productivity, and sustainable resource utilization. These predictions are essential for advancing sustainable hydraulic engineering and environmental management. In this study, a new algorithmic modeling framework was proposed to estimate the terminal settling velocity of irregularly shaped particles/materials. The framework integrates advanced non-linear regression techniques with robust optimization methods. The model successfully incorporated seven key input parameters to construct a comprehensive mathematical representation of the settling process. The proposed explicit model demonstrates superior prediction accuracy compared to existing empirical and drag correlation models. The model’s validity was confirmed using a large and morphologically diverse dataset of 86 irregular materials and rigorously evaluated using an extensive battery of statistical goodness-of-fit parameters. The developed model is a robust and highly accurate tool for predicting the settling behavior of non-spherical particles in the transition flow regime. Beyond its technical merits, the model could offer significant sustainability benefits by enhancing the design and optimization of wastewater treatment systems. More precise predictions of non-spherical particle settling behavior could improve sedimentation or particle removal efficiency, potentially reducing energy consumption and mitigating adverse environmental impacts on industrial waste management and aquatic ecosystem preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mathematical Models of Fluid Dynamics)

21 pages, 3505 KB

Open AccessArticle

Responses to Induced Passive Heat in Two Local Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Varieties Under Humid Tropical Field Conditions in Costa Rica

by Idrissa Diédhiou, Josafath A. Otero, Oswaldo Navarrete, Yendry N. Arguedas-Flatts, Jorge Alonso Alcala Jauregui and Hugo M. Ramírez-Tobias

Plants 2025, 14(22), 3489; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14223489 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Climate change is a major constraint for common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivation in tropical regions, where elevated temperatures drastically affect reproductive efficiency and yield. This study aimed to evaluate the response of two local varieties, Matambú and Tayní, under passive induced heat using Open Top Chambers (OTC) in the humid tropics of Costa Rica. A factorial randomized block design with two genotypes and two environments (control and OTC) was applied to assess morphological, physiological, and yield-related traits. OTC increased daily maximum, minimum, and mean air temperatures by +2.29, +0.93, and +2.80 °C, respectively, and raised cumulative growing degree days by 325 °C·day⁻¹ compared with the control. Heat stress reduced grain yield by more than 80% (from 0.15 to 0.03 t·ha⁻¹) and significantly lowered the harvest index, confirming strong reproductive vulnerability. However, Matambú maintained higher nodulation and above-ground biomass under heat, whereas Tayní showed marked declines in pod set and nodule number. Correlation analyses revealed that pod number and harvest index were the strongest predictors of yield across environments. These results provide the first field evidence of local varietal responses to induced passive heat in Costa Rican common bean varieties and highlight Matambú as a valuable genetic resource for breeding climate resilient cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

15 pages, 5222 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Simulation Method for Cyclic Steam Stimulation Development of Heavy Oil Reservoirs with Multi-Layer Radial Horizontal Wells

by Tiantian Yu, Zhaoxiang Zhang, Yipu Li, Yongge Liu, Aifen Li, Dechun Chen and Liyuan Chen

Processes 2025, 13(11), 3694; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113694 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Radial drilling technology, which involves drilling multiple micro-horizontal wellbores radially from a main wellbore, can effectively expand the contact area between the wellbore and the reservoir, as well as the swept volume of thermal fluid. It is a promising technology for enhancing the efficiency of heavy oil thermal recovery. However, a systematic numerical simulation study on the application of this technology in the cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) development of heavy oil reservoirs is currently lacking. This paper establishes a numerical thermal recovery model for heavy oil reservoirs based on an unstructured grid modeling method, which can accurately describe the complex geometry of multi-layer, multi-branch radial wells. The model is discretized using the finite volume method and solved with a fully implicit method. Then, based on the geological parameters of a typical heavy oil reservoir, a comparative study was conducted on the production dynamics and physical field evolution of horizontal wells, single-layer radial wells, and dual-layer radial wells during the CSS process. The results indicate that, compared to conventional well types, dual-layer multi-branch radial wells can simultaneously inject steam into the upper and lower parts of the reservoir. This forms a more balanced and extensive three-dimensional heated body, significantly improving the planar sweep efficiency of heat and the uniformity of reserve recovery, thereby substantially increasing crude oil production and recovery factor. Compared to the horizontal well scenario, using dual-layer radial wells for CSS can increase cumulative oil production by 44.8%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Enhanced Oil Recovery Process Analysis and Application, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 3333 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution and Environmental Impacts of Soil Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Downstream Daliao River Basin

by Tianxiang Wang, Yexin Liu, Zixiong Wang, Tianzi Wang, Zipeng Zhang, Runfa Cui, Rongyue Ma and Guangyu Su

Water 2025, 17(22), 3267; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223267 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Soil nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loss in watersheds is a critical source of water pollution. This study explores the spatial distribution, release potential, and environmental impacts of soil N and P in the downstream Daliao River basin by integrating field investigations and simulation experiments. Results showed that total nitrogen content in soils ranged from 256.09 to 3362.75 mg/kg, while that in sediments ranged from 114.85 to 1640.54 mg/kg. Total phosphorus content in soils varied from 250.18 to 1142.69 mg/kg, whereas in sediments it ranged from 327.23 to 586.24 mg/kg. The ammonia nitrogen release potentials of soils collected from rice paddies, corn farmlands, roadsides, and reed wetlands were 0.75, 0.86, 0.70, and 8.65 mg/L, respectively, with corresponding total phosphorus release potentials of 0.61, 1.01, 0.31, and 1.52 mg/L. For sediments, ammonia nitrogen and total phosphorus release potentials ranged from 0.96 to 1.21 mg/L and 0.44 to 0.52 mg/L, respectively. Temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen were important factors influencing nitrogen and phosphorus release from soils and sediments. The export of nitrogen and phosphorus from soil reached 50.50 t/a and 21.63 t/a, respectively. During the soil erosion process in the Daliao River Basin, phosphorus exhibited a high release potential and served as the primary pollutant, whereas the release mechanism of ammonia nitrogen was more complex, showing seasonal variability. Soils in the downstream Daliao River basin have large specific surface areas and may pose a high pollution risk after discharge into water bodies due to prolonged adsorption of pollutants. It is recommended to propose promoting soil testing-based fertilization, constructing ecological engineering projects, developing sponge cities, and conducting environmental dredging to reduce N and P release from agricultural lands, construction areas, natural wastelands, and sediments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Smart Technologies in Integrated Water Quality Modeling, 2nd Edition)

18 pages, 4501 KB

Open AccessArticle

Benford’s Law and Transport Infrastructure: The Analysis of the Main Road Network’s Higher-Level Segments in the EU

by Monika Ivanova, Erika Feckova Skrabulakova, Ales Jandera, Zuzana Sarosiova and Tomas Skovranek

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2025, 14(11), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi14110450 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Benford’s Law, also known as the First-Digit Law, describes the non-uniform distribution of leading digits in many naturally occurring datasets. This phenomenon can be observed in data such as financial transactions, tax records, or demographic indicators, but the application of Benford’s Law to data from the field of transport infrastructure remains largely underexplored. As interest in using statistical distributions to identify spatial and regional patterns grows, this paper explores the applicability of Benford’s Law to anthropogenic geographic data, particularly whether the lengths of higher-level segments of the main road network across European Union member states follow Benford’s Law. To evaluate the conformity of the data from all European Union countries with Benford’s distribution, Pearson’s

χ^{2}

test of association, the p-value, and the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test were used. The results consistently show low

χ^{2}

values and high p-values, indicating a strong agreement between observed and expected distributions. The relationship between the distribution of higher-level segment lengths and the leading digits of these lengths was studied as well. The findings suggest that the length distribution of the main road networks’ higher-level segments closely follows Benford’s Law, emphasizing its potential as a simple yet effective tool for assessing the reliability and consistency of geographic and infrastructure datasets within the European context. Full article

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