Search Results (15,810)

This study has investigated the occurrence characteristics and population damage of weeds in double-cropping direct-seeded rice fields in Hunan, and has identified efficient and safe pre- and post-emergence herbicides to enhance resistance management. Field trials were conducted at two representative sites (Yiyang and Changsha) in Hunan in 2024~2025. Weed community composition and emergence patterns were systematically monitored. The inhibitory effects of weed infestations on rice growth and yield were quantified. The biological activity and field efficacy of various herbicide classes against barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) were evaluated via greenhouse bioassays and field trials. Weed emergence lasted 3–48 days after sowing (DAS) with three distinct peaks. Grasses emerged earliest and dominated the community, with barnyardgrass peaking at 13–17 DAS (≈50% of total weeds), followed by broadleaves at 20 DAS (≈40%) and sedges at 25 DAS (<20%). Weed infestation drastically suppressed rice height (max 19% reduction) and tillering (max 50% reduction), with mixed-weed and grass-dominated plots causing the severest yield losses (92.0% and 90.5%, respectively), versus only 18.0% in broadleaf-dominated plots. Greenhouse bioassays showed that oxaziclomefone had the highest intrinsic activity against barnyardgrass (GR₉₀ = 17.70 g ai ha⁻¹). In pre-emergence applications in field trials, pretilachlor (900 g ai ha⁻¹) and mefenacet (147.6 g ai ha⁻¹) provided >96.8% control at 20 and 40 days after treatment (DAT), while oxaziclomefone (66 g ai ha⁻¹) achieved 88.2% control at 20 DAT. For post-emergence herbicides, Profoxydim showed the highest intrinsic activity (GR₉₀ = 33.01 g ai ha⁻¹), followed by feproxydim (GR₉₀ = 33.45 g ai ha⁻¹) and flusulfinam (GR₉₀ = 64.55 g ai ha⁻¹). In field trials, flusulfinam provided 100% control with superior crop safety at 20 and 40 DAT, while Florpyrauxifen-benzyl, feproxydim, and metamifop reached >93% efficacy. In conclusion, weed emergence in Hunan direct-seeded rice follows a three-peak pattern, with barnyardgrass being the most destructive species. An integrated strategy combining pretilachlor (pre-emergence) and flusulfinam (post-emergence), rotated with florpyrauxifen-benzyl and feproxydim, is recommended for effective barnyardgrass management and resistance mitigation. Full article

Recently, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have gained significant attention as a bioactive material for replacing petrochemical plastics. PHAs can be produced by microorganisms growing on sludge substrates. In this study, fish-processing wastewater was investigated as an alternative substrate for PHA production using Bacillus cereus. Wastewater dilution, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio modification, and the addition of fish oil as a lipidic substrate were examined, and bacterial growth and biopolymer production were optimized. First, wastewater was diluted (25–100%) and examined. The 50% dilution treatment was selected, yielding a CDM of 0.426 g/L and a PHA content of 6.69%. In subsequent steps, the effects of wastewater fermentation and bacterial adaptation prior to the main production processes were investigated. According to the results, the 50% and 100% fermented treatments exhibited higher CDM values (0.970–1.022 g/L) compared to the non-fermented treatments. Cultures inoculated with adapted bacteria showed superior performance (CDM: 1.455 g/L, PHA: 0.499 g/L, PHA content: 34.63%) relative to non-adapted treatments. The effect of the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio was also optimized by supplementing two carbon sources: glucose and crude fish oil. The optimal treatment T1 (effluent + 0.6 g/L glucose) had a CDM of 1.32 g/L and a PHA content of 0.215 g/L. Treatment 1, which consisted solely of effluent and fish oil, exhibited higher values (CDM: 1.12 g/L, PHA: 0.65 g/L) and was therefore considered the cost-effective treatment. Subsequently, a scale-up process was conducted in a 4 L bioreactor over 300 h under semi-continuous, long-term cultivation. The optimal harvesting time for the biopolymer was achieved during the fourth cycle (180–240 h). The produced biopolymer was characterized using FTIR, NMR, TGA, DSC, SEM, and XRD analyses, confirming the production of a copolymer, specifically poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate). This study used wastewater from the fish industry for the production of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates. Full article

Azo dyes demonstrate dose-dependent carcinogenic and mutagenic effects in exposed cells. Among remediation approaches, microbial adsorption is the most sustainable and environmentally friendly method for eliminating azo dyes. A novel Aspergillus terreus silica composite was developed as a sustainable adsorbent for crystal violet dye (CVD) removal. The fungal strain was isolated from dye wastewater and was genetically identified by 18S rRNA gene sequencing. Dried mycelia of A. terreus (PX920301) were combined with SiO₂ (1:1 w/w) through iterative hydration-drying cycles, yielding a composite characterized by FTIR analyses. Removal CVD %, adsorption capacity, and CVD residual were calculated, and the adsorption process was optimized using Box–Behnken design (four factors, 25 runs). The biosafety of the composite was assessed for phytotoxicity and microbial toxicity. The composite was also applied to real dyes wastewater collected from the bacteriological laboratory. Aspergillus terreus-silica composite showed the highest CVD removal percentage by 85.4%, adsorption capacity (qe) 121.1 mg/L, and lowest CVD residual by 7.26 mg/L, followed by the dried active mycelia (DA-mycelia) with CVD removal 40.23%, adsorption capacity (qe) 57.05 mg/L, and CVD residual by 29.73 mg/L. Optimization data cleared that the maximum experimental values of CVD removal (%) was 99.59% (predicted value 100%) obtained in run number (4) using initial CVD concentration (200 mg/L), pH (8), adsorbent composite weight (0.1 g), and contact time (48 h). Biosafety evaluation demonstrated negligible phytotoxicity against Triticum aestivum seedlings post-treatment, with restored germination and growth comparable to controls. Microbial toxicity assays via well-diffusion to seven microbial isolates confirmed no toxic activities against the tested bacteria, yeast, and fungi, underscoring the composite’s environmental safety. The composite could decolorize the real dye wastewater of laboratories by 95.37%. In conclusion, A. terreus mycelial-silica composite offers a cost-effective, sustainable, and eco-friendly alternative solution for dye bioremediation. Full article

Marine bacteria are increasingly explored as alternative microbial platforms for the production of high-value biopharmaceuticals. In this study, we investigate the Antarctic marine bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125 (PhTAC125), an unconventional host capable of yielding soluble and biologically active human cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (hCDKL5). This serine/threonine kinase plays a crucial role in neuronal development, and its deficiency causes CDKL5 Deficiency Disorder, a severe and currently untreatable neurodevelopmental disease. Recombinant production of hCDKL5 is a prerequisite for the development of enzyme replacement therapy; however, current manufacturing processes remain insufficient for industrial translation, particularly in terms of product quality and functional consistency. To address these limitations, we developed dedicated analytical strategies: protein accumulation was quantified using a customised sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) designed to selectively detect full-length hCDKL5, while protein functionality was assessed by mass spectrometry-based quantification of autophosphorylation, a critical determinant of kinase activation. These complementary tools were applied to characterise hCDKL5 production under different growth conditions. Overall, this work establishes an integrated analytical framework aligned with a Quality by Design approach, enabling the simultaneous assessment of yield, structural integrity, and functional activation, and providing a robust basis for rational process optimisation towards scalable hCDKL5 manufacturing. Full article

Background: Quantitative genetic analysis of image- or video-derived phenotypes is increasingly being performed for a wide range of traits. Pig body weight values estimated by a conventional approach or a computer vision system can be considered two different measurements of the same trait but with different sources of phenotyping error. Previous studies have shown that trait measurement error, defined as the difference between manually collected phenotypes and image-derived phenotypes, can be influenced by genetics, suggesting that the error is systematic rather than random and is more likely to lead to misleading quantitative genetic analysis results. Therefore, we investigated the effect of trait measurement error on the genetic analysis of pig body weight (BW). Results: Calibrated scale-based and image-based BW showed high coefficients of determination and goodness of fit. Genomic heritability estimates for scale-based and image-based BW were mostly identical across growth periods. Genomic heritability estimates for trait measurement error were consistently negligible, regardless of the choice of computer vision algorithm. In addition, genome-wide association analysis revealed no overlap between the top markers identified for scale-based BW and those associated with trait measurement error. Overall, the deep learning-based regressions outperformed the adaptive thresholding segmentation methods. Conclusion: This study showed that manually measured scale-based and image-based BW phenotypes yielded the same quantitative genetic results. We found no evidence that BW trait measurement error could be influenced, at least in part, by genetic factors. This suggests that trait measurement error in pig BW does not contain systematic errors that could bias downstream genetic analysis. Full article

Weed infestations are a major agricultural problem, driving the need for sustainable control methods beyond conventional synthetic herbicides. This study explored wood vinegar (WV), a pyrolysis by-product, as a dual-purpose tool for weed management and crop growth. Chemically characterized WV exhibited an acidic pH, high acetic acid content, and diverse organic compounds. Pot experiments demonstrated WV’s strong, concentration-dependent inhibition of weed seedling emergence. Field trials across three seasons confirmed WV’s efficacy in reducing weed density and biomass, particularly at 50% and 100% concentrations, while also influencing weed community composition. Critically, subsequent evaluation of residual phytotoxicity on tomato and courgette crops revealed that WV 50% significantly optimized both plant biomass and fruit yield. In contrast, WV 100% negatively impacted courgette yield, and WV 10% showed variable effects. These findings highlight WV, especially at optimal dilutions like 50%, as a promising sustainable solution for integrated weed management with potential biostimulant properties for crops. Full article

Water scarcity is the primary constraint on the development of the potato industry in Northwest China. Improving water use efficiency (WUE) under limited water supply is, therefore, an urgent priority to promote the green and sustainable development of potato production in this region. This research was conducted from 2023 to 2024 in the rain shelter of the Agricultural Science Research Institute in Dingxi City, Gansu Province, using the potato cultivar ‘Gan Yin No. 9’ as the experimental material. Throughout the growing season, the control treatment (CK) was maintained at 75–85% of the field water capacity (FWC). Based on CK, three deficit-irrigation treatments were established: W₇₅ (75% of the CK irrigation amount), W₅₀ (50% of CK irrigation amount), and W₂₅ (25% of CK irrigation amount), with three replicates per treatment. We evaluated the effects of different irrigation regimes on plant growth characteristics, physiological characteristics, tuber yield, and WUE. The results showed that the W₇₅ treatment significantly (p < 0.05) promoted the growth of plant height and stem diameter, and significantly increased them by 8.70–10.20% and 13.03–18.70%, respectively, compared with CK. The total dry matter accumulation under W₇₅ was significantly higher than CK (by 10.90–11.40%) and markedly higher than W₅₀ and W₂₅ (by 24.10–45.50%). No significant differences were observed in tuber yield, large tuber rate, and medium tuber rate between W₇₅ and CK. Notably, W₇₅ significantly improved WUE by 36.43–38.51% compared with CK. Overall, under the conditions of this study, W₇₅ treatment was identified to be the optimal irrigation regime for potato cultivation, as it promoted plant growth, maintained tuber yield, and enhanced water use efficiency. This study aims to establish a definitive irrigation threshold for potato production in Northwest China. The findings provide a precise basis for formulating irrigation schedules, which can contribute to the development of water-efficient agriculture and support the sustainable development of the potato industry in the region. Full article

Deammonification, which is based on partial nitritation and anammox (PN/A), is a well-established sidestream treatment for nitrogen removal. However, transferring deammonification to mainstream wastewater treatment remains challenging due to low temperatures, the need to retain slow-growing anammox bacteria (AnAOB), and their competition for nitrite with nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) and heterotrophic denitrifiers. This work investigates cubic polyurethane foam carriers to promote growth and retention of AnAOB. A moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) and an integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) reactor were compared over a three-year experimental period at lab-scale. The feasibility of the biofilm carriers for deammonification was first evaluated under sidestream conditions, followed by a stepwise transition to mainstream operational conditions. The impact of operational parameters, including dissolved oxygen concentration, pH value, and aeration strategy, was evaluated with respect to the activity of aerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), NOB, and AnAOB, as well as nitrogen removal rates. Deammonification reached nitrogen removal rates of 0.04–0.12 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹ (IFAS reactor) and 0.02–0.28 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹ (MBBR) at subphases with reactor bulk concentrations above 60 mg NH₄-N L⁻¹. Highest nitrogen removal degrees of 77 ± 6% (IFAS) and 76 ± 5% (MBBR) were achieved at reactor bulk concentrations of 96 mg NH₄ L⁻¹ and 97 mg NH₄ L⁻¹, respectively. Lower concentrations triggered NOB activity in both reactors, leading to an increase in nitrate concentration up to 22 mg NO₃-N L⁻¹. AOB and AnAOB activities were on average 6-fold higher on the carriers compared to suspended biomass throughout all experimental phases, demonstrating the feasibility of using cubic polyurethane foam carriers for deammonification. This was also confirmed by fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) measurements. Median nitrogen removal rates over all experimental phases of 0.07 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹ for the IFAS reactor and 0.05 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹ for the MBBR were achieved, which are comparable to conventional activated sludge systems performing nitrogen removal via nitrification–denitrification. While at lower nitrogen concentrations, the IFAS reactor yielded superior nitrogen removal rates, peak nitrogen removal rates of 0.28 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹ were measured in the MBBR configuration. However, controlling NOB activity at lower temperatures and concentrations remains a challenge in MBBR and IFAS configurations. In our study, in the IFAS reactor NOB activities were visible on fewer days than in MBBR. At mainstream-like conditions, higher nitrogen removal rates of IFAS (0.09–0.12 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹) were achieved compared to the MBBR (0.06–0.09 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹). This demonstrates the advantage of the IFAS reactor in treating mainstream wastewater via deammonification. As an autotrophic nitrogen removal process, the implementation of deammonification in the mainstream of municipal wastewater treatment plants enables enhanced recovery of biogas from sewage organic matter. The latter would otherwise be consumed during the conventional nitrification-denitrification pathway. Consequently, the overall energy balance for wastewater treatment can be improved, contributing to a more environmentally sustainable process. Full article

Background/Objective: Apart from the attributes such as cost, yields and consistency that define the feasibility of a manufacturing process, physicochemical and immunological quality traits equally signify the functionality of a biological product. The present study investigates one such promising Meningococcal B vaccine candidate, a chimeric fHbp-PorA protein in Escherichia coli. Methods: The chimeric fHbp–PorA protein, expressed with an N-terminal tag of HIS-MBP-TEV was produced in a 10 L fermenter under two different media and induction strategies: chemically defined (CD) media with lactose induction and complex media (CM) with galactose-mediated autoinduction. Comparative analysis was carried out between the two approaches for cell growth, protein expression, and purification, and the final chimeric proteins were characterized to evaluate for their biochemical, structural, in vitro and in vivo immunochemical properties. Results: Growth in the CD media resulted in several-fold-higher biomass compared to that in CM media in a short cultivation time; however, more than a third of the expressed protein remained in an insoluble state. Meanwhile, almost all of the expressed protein with CM media was recovered in soluble form. Moreover, purification of the unprocessed tagged protein and recovery of chimeric protein (tag removed) resulted in 75% greater yield in CM media when compared to CD media. The final chimeric proteins obtained from each medium varied significantly in their physicochemical characteristics, including their epitope projection and CD spectra. The results of in vivo animal immunogenicity response also showed higher serum bactericidal activity associated with chimeric protein obtained from CM media compared to CD media. Conclusions: The outcomes demonstrate that complex media with galactose-induced expression not only show higher productivity but also exhibit superior quality attributes, qualifying their reliable use in the manufacturing process of this promising vaccine candidate. Full article

Grapes are among the most widely cultivated fruit crops globally, yet their growth and yield are severely compromised by Colletotrichum viniferum, which causes a devastating disease that affects grape berries. The wall-associated kinase (WAK) gene family, a unique subfamily of receptor-like-kinases (RLKs), plays important roles in mediating plant responses to both abiotic and biotic stresses. However, the expression patterns and biological functions of grape WAKs in response to C. viniferum infection remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, a total of 57 VdWAK genes were identified and phylogenetically classified into twelve subgroups. Chromosomal localization and collinearity analyses further revealed that tandem duplication and segmental duplication events contributed to the expansion of the VdWAK gene family. Transcriptomic profiling identified VdWAK19 as a key responsive gene. It was predominantly expressed in mature berries but transcriptionally repressed upon C. viniferum infection. Virus-induced gene silencing assays in grape berries demonstrated that knockdown of VdWAK19 significantly reduced fruit resistance to C. viniferum infection. Overall, these findings advance our understanding of the functional roles of VdWAK genes during C. viniferum infection and provide a theoretical basis for the potential application of VdWAK19 in breeding grape varieties with enhanced resistance to ripe rot. Full article

Accurate estimation of crop development, water use and yield is essential for improving irrigation management in Mediterranean agricultural systems under increasing climate variability. However, many crop models require extensive input data and technical expertise, limiting their operational use by farmers and technicians. This study proposes an integrated agro-modelling framework that combines thermal time modelling, satellite-derived vegetation indices and simplified yield estimation approaches to assess maize phenology, crop water use and productivity under real farming conditions. A key component of the framework is the use of the Sentinel-2 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series to dynamically identify crop growth stages and derive actual basal crop coefficients (K_{cb act}), enabling the estimation of actual crop transpiration (T_{c act}). These NDVI-based estimates of actual K_cb and T_c were evaluated against simulations from the previously calibrated soil water balance model SIMDualKc. The results showed that the temporal profiles of the NDVI successfully captured the progression of the maize growth stages, although some discrepancies were observed during early stages of development due to the effects of the soil background and the satellite revisit intervals. An empirical relationship between the NDVI and K_cb was developed using multi-year observations and model simulations, improving crop transpiration estimation under field conditions. The NDVI-based approach adequately reproduced daily transpiration dynamics with good agreement with SIMDualKc simulations, yielding RMSE values of 0.11–0.69 mm d⁻¹ and errors generally below 21% of the mean transpiration rate. Seasonal transpiration estimates showed stronger agreement once canopy cover reached its maximum. The integrated AEZ–Stewart modelling framework incorporating NDVI-based transpiration estimations provided accurate yield predictions, with RMSE values of 1.7–2.3 t ha⁻¹ (representing less than 14% of the observed yields). Overall, the proposed framework demonstrates strong potential as a practical and scalable decision-support tool for irrigation management and yield assessment in Mediterranean maize systems. Its novelty lies in the operational integration of NDVI-derived crop development and transpiration estimates within a simplified yield modelling structure, offering a transferable approach applicable to other regions and cropping systems where satellite data are available. Full article

Seasonal drought constitutes a major abiotic stress limiting the growth and yield of pineapple, a globally important Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) crop. The sucrose catabolism mediated by cell wall invertase (CWIN) plays a vital role in regulating plant growth and development, as well as adaptive responses to abiotic stresses. Invertase inhibitors (INHs) serve as specific post-translational regulators that modulate CWIN enzymatic activity. However, the INH family has not been systematically characterized in pineapple, and its functional roles in mediating sucrose metabolism and drought resistance remain elusive. In this study, three AcINHs were identified from the pineapple genome, followed by comprehensive analyses of their gene structures, phylogenetic relationships, homology characteristics and protein structures. Structural analysis revealed that all AcINH members harbor conserved motifs 1, 2, 3, 5 and 9, whereas only AcINH3 possesses motif 7. Expression analysis showed that only AcINH3 was significantly transcriptionally induced by drought stress among all family members. Functional validation demonstrated that AcINH3 knockout markedly elevated CWIN activity in pineapple seedling leaves, facilitating hexose accumulation and promoting plant growth and development. Moreover, AcINH3-edited lines exhibited enhanced drought resistance, accompanied by increased accumulation of soluble sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose), abscisic acid (ABA), and proline (PRO), reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and enhanced peroxidase (POD) activity. Biochemical assays further verified a direct physical interaction between AcINH3 and AcCWIN1, which mediates sucrose metabolism and drought stress responses. Collectively, this study identifies a novel AcINH3–AcCWIN1 post-translational module that modulates sugar metabolism and drought tolerance in pineapple, providing critical mechanistic insights for CAM plants. Our findings highlight AcINH3 as a promising target for genome-editing breeding to enhance drought resistance in CAM crops. Full article

With natural gas demand growing rapidly in this century, solidified natural gas technology holds great potential for strengthening energy resilience and delivering secure global gas supply. However, this technology is still impeded by insufficient gas uptake capacity and sluggish hydrate formation rate. Environmentally benign peptides have recently emerged as a novel class of green hydrate promoters. Different from single amino acids, peptides exhibit significant structural diversity owing to their varying sequences and combinations of their constituent amino acid monomers, showing great potential in hydrate-based applications. In this work, a unique tripeptide promoter, L-glutathione reduced (GSH), was employed, and the thermodynamic influence factors in methane hydrate formation were systematically investigated. Furthermore, as a highly hydrophilic amino acid, L-arginine was chosen for a comparative kinetic investigation with extremely hydrophilic GSH. The results revealed that experimental pressure showed a strong effect on the methane uptake rate, while it presented little influence on final methane storage capacity. The initial temperature greatly affected the average induction time, the rate of hydrate growth, and the yields of hydrates promoted by GSH. Increasing temperature resulted in a significant reduction in both the hydrate formation rate and methane uptake at 3 h. Therefore, in the GSH-promoted hydrate formation process, suitable pressure and temperature should be carefully chosen for desirable hydrate performance. Furthermore, the initial 15 min hydrate formation rate of 0.3 wt% L-arginine is 52.4% lower than that of 0.3 wt% GSH. The final methane uptake of 0.3 wt% arginine is substantially smaller than that of 0.3 wt% GSH. Although both GSH and arginine exhibit strong hydrophilic properties, the tripeptide GSH is more effective than the amino acid arginine in enhancing methane hydrate formation. The insights gained from this work offer a theoretical foundation for the application of peptide-based promoters in solidified natural gas technology. Full article

We propose a dimensionally consistent fractional spatio-temporal PDE framework for modelling immune-mediated demyelination in multiple sclerosis (MS). The system couples effector and regulatory T cells, M1/M2 macrophage polarisation, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, oligodendrocyte dynamics, and time-dependent therapeutic controls within a unified distributed-parameter structure. In contrast to ad hoc replacements of integerorder derivatives by Caputo fractional derivatives, the fractional extension proposed here is derived from an underlying continuous-time random walk (CTRW) process with Mittag–Leffler-distributed residence times. This stochastic derivation yields a governing system in which a single commensurate fractional order α ∈ (0, 1], together with a characteristic memory timescale τ0, ensures dimensional consistency and mass balance across all coupled components. The model is formulated as a system of nonlinear reaction–diffusion equations with cross-regulatory and multiplicative interaction terms governing immune amplification, cytokine feedback, and the demyelination–remyelination balance. Analytical interpretation shows how non-Markovian residence times induce Mittag–Leffler-type relaxation and thereby modify effective growth, decay, and stability properties. Numerical simulations compare classical and fractional dynamics, revealing that memory-driven kinetics prolong effector T-cell and M1-macrophage activity, attenuate reparative M2 and oligodendrocyte responses, and extend the effective action of bang–bang therapy inputs representing IFN-β and glatiramer acetate beyond their dosing windows. The results indicate that integer-order models may underestimate chronic inflammatory persistence and demyelination severity, while providing a mathematically and physically well-posed platform for memory-aware immune modelling and therapy evaluation in MS. Full article

This study assesses the impacts of climate change (CC) on maize production in Bosnia and Herzegovina, comparing ten maize-producing municipalities and using Gradiška as a case study. Agroclimatic indicators and ISAREG-based soil water balance simulations were used to evaluate regional suitability for future maize production. Projections indicate substantial increases in average temperatures of 2 to 6 Celsius by the end of the century, depending on the RCP scenario, together with important reductions in accumulated mean precipitation, particularly during summer. Rising temperatures accelerate maize phenology, shortening growth cycles and enabling double-cropping opportunities for short-season cycles. Medium-season cycles may become feasible in most regions, while long-season cycles remain constrained in high-altitude areas due to thermal requirements. Rainfed maize in Gradiška is expected to face increased relative evapotranspiration deficits under future ‘hot & dry’ conditions, with potential relative yield losses due to water deficit of up to 12%. Irrigated maize shows a variation in irrigation requirements from −26% to +8% relative to the baseline, which reflects the combined effect of a shortened crop growth cycle under higher temperatures and increased evapotranspiration demand under drier conditions. Regions with high soil water-holding capacity are the most resilient, while areas with shallow soils or Mediterranean climates are more vulnerable under future conditions. The findings underscore the need for agronomic adaptation measures to the projected CC impacts, including supplemental irrigation, drought-tolerant cultivars, and potential adjustment of sowing. Full article