Search Results (485)

The city of Tlaxcala, located in central Mexico, is a small region with high industrial activity that releases potentially toxic elements (PTEs) into the environment. This study investigated the concentration, distribution, contamination levels, and human and ecological health risks of 14 PTEs in 100 urban dust samples collected between February and March 2025. The PTEs were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The level of contamination was established using the contamination factor, enrichment, geoaccumulation index, and modified degree of contamination. We assessed human health risks based on non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks, as well as potential ecological risks associated with EPT exposure. The results revealed the presence of fourteen EPTs that exhibited the following pattern: Ti > Fe > Mn > Zn > Sb > Sr > Cr > V > Pb > Ni > Cu > Cd > As > Co, where Cd, Sb, and Ti showed high contamination (49.9, 292.6, 166.7) and extremely high enrichment (166.9, 1253, 471.9). The modified degree of contamination indicated contamination in more than 90% of the samples. The health risk index indicated a non-carcinogenic risk to children due to Sb exposure (HI = 2.9). The potential ecological risk was extremely high, with Sb, Cd, and Ti accounting for 99% of the total ecological risk. Although Tlaxcala is a small city, this study revealed high levels of Cd, Sb, and Ti contamination, as well as ecological and health risks to children due to Sb. This may be partly attributed to industrial activity and wastewater discharge from nearby cities such as Mexico City, Puebla, and the State of Mexico. Therefore, environmental and government authorities should consider these findings and reduce pollution levels accordingly. Full article

Chitin is an abundant biopolymer, with 1–3 million tons potentially available annually from shellfish-processing waste, but remains underutilized because its insolubility in conventional solvents makes it difficult to process and functionalize. Herein, a three-step route to chitin adsorbents with interchangeable ligands is reported. Highly acetylated chitin was tosylated and converted to the C-6 azide, and amine- and hydroxyl-terminated ligands were attached to this common intermediate by the copper-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) “click” reaction, yielding water-insoluble derivatives. Cu(II) adsorption to the adsorbents was evaluated using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES analysis). Under standard conditions (pH 6.0, 4 h contact), amine- and alcohol-chitin adsorbed 30.1 ± 1.3 and 22.3 ± 1.9 mg Cu g⁻¹, respectively, approximately 4.9- and 3.6-fold more than unmodified chitin. Isotherm data were well described by the Langmuir model, with apparent capacities of 37.4 and 25.7 mg g⁻¹ at 4 h contact. The adsorbents could be regenerated with 7% (v/v) HCl, retaining 46% and 42% of their initial uptake after four cycles. The differences in derivatives’ uptakes are attributable to the identity of the grafted ligand, illustrating how the click route allows chitin adsorbents to be tailored through the choice of alkyne. Full article

The consumption of medicinal plant infusions has increased worldwide due to their perceived health benefits; however, their effects on dental enamel integrity remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated dental enamel demineralization induced by infusions of Baccharis trimera, Hibiscus sabdariffa, and Moringa oleifera using an in vitro erosive challenge. Bovine teeth were incubated in the infusions for 0, 1, 5, and 60 min, with ultrapure water used as a control. pH was monitored throughout the experiment, and the concentrations of Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn, and Zn released into the solutions were quantified by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). In addition, Ca/P and Ca/Mg molar ratios were calculated to assess hydroxyapatite stability. H. sabdariffa and M. oleifera exhibited consistently acidic pH values (3.0–3.8), with significant time-dependent increases in Ca and P release during the 60-min incubation period (p < 0.001), accompanied by marked deviations from the ideal Ca/P ratio (1.67), indicating unfavorable conditions for enamel remineralization. In contrast, B. trimera maintained pH values closer to the critical threshold for enamel dissolution (5.4–5.7), resulting in smaller mineral changes over time. Despite the high mineral content of the infusions, acidic pH prevailed over their remineralization potential. These findings demonstrate that medicinal plant infusions may contribute to enamel demineralization depending on their acidity and exposure time, highlighting the importance of evaluating their erosive potential. Full article

Electroless nickel plating of various alloys is one of the most technologically mature methods for producing functional coatings with high corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and stable service performance. In the field of ultracold neutron (UCN) physics, nickel-phosphorus coatings based on the ⁵⁸Ni isotope are of particular interest. Its exceptionally high neutron optical potential, approximately 342 neV, is substantially higher than that of natural nickel, which is approximately 245.5 neV. At the same time, ⁵⁸Ni and natural nickel have essentially identical chemical properties and differ only in their nuclear characteristics; therefore, process development and optimization of the deposition procedure can be performed using the more readily available natural nickel. The incorporation of phosphorus decreases the total neutron optical potential to values in the range of 190–220 neV, but makes it possible to modify the magnetic properties of the nickel coating in order to reduce magnetic losses of UCN upon reflection from the surface. Although extensive studies have been devoted to the deposition of Ni-P coatings on aluminum and steel substrates, the formation of high-quality coatings on beryllium- and zirconium-based alloys remains insufficiently investigated. These materials are of particular interest for chambers of superfluid-helium-based UCN sources, since they can reduce activation-related heat loads and ensure efficient cooling of the source to the required temperatures of approximately 1 K under high-radiation-flux conditions. In this work, electroless Ni–P coatings deposited on the surfaces of the aluminum–magnesium alloy AMg6, the aluminum–beryllium alloy AM162H, and the zirconium alloy Zircaloy-4 were systematically investigated, with particular emphasis on AM162H and Zircaloy-4 as promising structural materials for UCN-source chambers. The deposited coatings were comprehensively characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), surface profilometry, instrumented nanoindentation, scratch testing, and electrochemical polarization measurements followed by Tafel analysis. These complementary techniques provided information on the phase-structural state, surface morphology, continuity, thickness, elemental composition, roughness, hardness, elastic modulus, indentation stiffness, adhesion behavior, and corrosion resistance of the coatings. The ICP-OES measurements independently confirmed the compositional trend established by EDS. The coatings deposited on AM162H and Zircaloy-4 exhibited higher hardness and substantially better corrosion resistance than Ni–P/AMg6. Scratch testing indicated satisfactory interfacial adhesion for the coatings on AMg6 and AM162H, whereas the Ni–P/Zircaloy-4 coating exhibited comparatively weaker adhesion to the substrate under the applied test conditions. Particular attention was paid to coating continuity, composition, and thickness because through-thickness defects would expose the substrate, which has a lower neutron optical potential, impurity elements could increase UCN absorption and reduce the neutron optical potential of the coating, and an appropriately selected coating thickness would enable the rational use of the expensive ⁵⁸Ni isotope. The results provide an experimental basis for further optimization of electroless Ni–P coatings for components of UCN production and storage systems. Full article

Unlike medicinal products (MPs), dietary supplements (DSs), foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) and fortified foods (FFs) available on the Polish market are not required to meet pharmacopoeial quality standards. Dose uniformity testing, a pharmacopoeial requirement for MPs, confirms both the accuracy of the declared dose and consistency between individual doses. As consumption of DSs, FSMPs, and FFs continues to increase, particularly among vulnerable populations, ensuring consistent intake of essential nutrients becomes increasingly important. Therefore, adapting pharmacopoeial dose uniformity criteria to elemental analysis may provide an additional quality assessment tool beyond the percentage of the label claim. Accordingly, this study aimed to (1) validate a multi-element High-Resolution Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (HR-ICP-OES) method for assessing dose uniformity and (2) evaluate the uniformity of elemental doses in one DS and four FSMPs according to pharmacopoeial guidelines, with MPs included as reference materials. To achieve this, the key parameters of the HR-ICP-OES measurement methodology were defined to ensure reliable results, and the uniformity of the doses of the seven preparations was determined by establishing a pharmacopoeial acceptance value. Although HR-ICP-OES is useful for multi-element analysis of products, limitations have been identified relating to chemical and spectral interference, and to the analysis of selenium at low levels. Of the DSs and FSMPs analysed, none complied with the pharmacopoeial requirements for uniformity. Full article

This study investigates how lithological origin influences the engineering performance, stripping resistance, and multi-scale material characteristics of aggregates used in asphalt pavement applications. Three representative aggregate systems—carbonate limestone from Cebeci (Istanbul), siliciclastic sandstone from Arnavutköy (Istanbul), and mafic volcanic basalt from the Karatepe Formation (Çorlu, Tekirdağ)—were comparatively evaluated. The experimental program included physical and mechanical tests, X-ray diffraction, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, thin-section petrography, and stripping resistance testing. Physical, mechanical, and durability test results were evaluated using replicate measurements and are reported as mean ± standard deviation where applicable. Basalt showed the best mechanical and durability performance, with the lowest flakiness index, Los Angeles abrasion value, and magnesium sulfate soundness loss, but exhibited the lowest unmodified retained coating. Limestone showed a higher inferred binder-affinity potential, interpreted from its calcite-dominated mineralogy, whereas sandstone displayed higher sensitivity related to particle shape, mineralogical heterogeneity, phyllosilicate-bearing components, and petrographic pore/microvoid characteristics. The addition of 0.5% CL 90 S hydrated lime produced an intermediate improvement in stripping resistance, increasing retained coating values to 75–80% for all aggregates, whereas 1.0% hydrated lime further improved retained coating to 80–85%. Higher lime contents of 1.5% and 2.0% did not provide additional improvement under the applied laboratory conditions. These results indicate that 1.0% CL 90 S hydrated lime represents the most effective dosage among the tested conditions. Overall, the results demonstrate that aggregate performance is governed by coupled lithological controls involving mineralogy, petrography, geochemistry, inferred surface-related interaction potential, mechanical durability, stripping resistance, and anti-stripping additive response. The proposed framework should therefore be interpreted as a comparative multi-scale assessment rather than a direct predictive model. Full article

Iron beneficiation tailings from the Bayan Obo West Mine constitute a low-grade secondary rare-earth resource in which rare-earth minerals are finely disseminated and intricately intergrown with gangue. This study quantified the modes of occurrence of rare-earth minerals and assessed an integrated flowsheet comprising screening, magnetic separation, and flotation. The feed contained 1.32 wt.% rare-earth oxides (REOs), as determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and automated mineralogy (AMICS) further showed that monazite and bastnäsite hosted 47.39% and 39.19% of the total REOs, respectively. Screening at 74 μm rejected 32.60% of the feed as a coarse fraction containing 0.65 wt.% REOs. Subsequent wet high-intensity magnetic separation reduced the mass entering flotation to 54.35% of the original feed while retaining 74.94% of the feed REOs and increasing the REO grade to 1.82 wt.%. Closed-circuit flotation with one rougher and three cleaner stages yielded a concentrate containing 51.99 wt.% REOs at an overall recovery of 52.38%. Rare-earth minerals accounted for 82.55 wt.% of the concentrate, including 41.65 wt.% monazite and 33.96 wt.% bastnäsite. This study thus demonstrated the feasibility of producing a high-grade rare-earth concentrate from the low-grade, fine-grained iron beneficiation tailings of the Bayan Obo West Mine characterized by complex mineral intergrowths, providing a practical basis for further rare-earth beneficiation and flowsheet optimization. Full article

Atmospheric deposition in industrial basins of Central Asia is strongly influenced by local emissions and wintertime dispersion conditions. This study characterized snowpack at 63 sampling stations across Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan, including operational background station 1, on 24–26 February 2025 after a 116-day accumulation period. Major ions were determined in a spatially distributed exploratory subset of 16 samples, and trace elements were measured in samples from all 63 stations by means of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and optical emission spectrometry. Mean meltwater pH and total dissolved solids were 6.55 ± 0.34 and 37.3 ± 18.0 mg L⁻¹, respectively. Charge-balance errors for the 16 hydrochemical samples ranged from −0.3% to +0.7%. Using the contamination index based on exceedances of the current Kazakhstan water-quality thresholds, 48 stations had CI < 1, seven had CI = 1–3, and eight had CI > 3; the highest value (60.21) occurred at station 26. Principal component analysis showed that the first three components explained 53.6% of the variance and separated a broad mineral/industrial aerosol association from a Pb–Cd–Zn association consistent with non-ferrous metallurgy and mixed urban sources. Cadmium was therefore interpreted as the principal contributor to the MPC-normalized index at the most affected stations, rather than as the dominant component by absolute concentration. The dissolved fraction can be mobilized during spring melt, indicating a potential pathway to soils and receiving waters, although direct ecological or human-health risk was not quantified. Station-level point mapping and projection along the NW–SE axis showed localized multi-element maxima rather than a monotonic citywide gradient. Full article

Growing interest in underutilized plant resources has increased the need for comprehensive characterization of their elemental composition. This study investigated the elemental composition of Adansonia digitata L. bark collected from two ecologically distinct regions of Sudan and compared elemental distributions among three bark sample forms: whole, cryogenically ground bark (Bark-N), mechanically separated powder (Bark-P), and fibre fraction (Bark-F). Following HNO₃–H₂O₂ wet digestion, elemental concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Generalized linear mixed-effects models revealed significant differences in regional and bark sample forms for several essential macroelements, essential trace elements, and other naturally occurring elements. Samples from the Blue Nile region contained higher concentrations of K, P, Fe, Cu, Co, and Mo, whereas bark from North Kordofan showed higher Mg, Na, Mn, Zn, Ba, and Sr concentrations. Distinct elemental profiles were also observed among the three bark sample forms. Selected potentially toxic elements (Pb, Cd, Cr, and As) were detected at low concentrations, providing baseline data for preliminary elemental safety screening. In general, this study provides one of the first comprehensive elemental characterizations of Sudanese baobab bark and establishes a reference dataset for future compositional, pharmaceutical, and industrial research. Full article

The concentrations of 18 metal(loid)s were measured in five marine invertebrate species (Oxystele tigrine and sinensis, Marthasterias glacialis, Cymbula oculus and granatina, Parechinus angulosus, and Mytilus galloprovincialis) and five macroalgae/seaweed species (Aeodes orbitosa, Gelidium pristoides, Caulerpa filiformis, Ulva sp., and Bifurcaria brassicac formis) collected from eight sites within the marine environment of False Bay, Cape Town, South Africa. To assess the potential human health hazards associated with consumption, samples were acid digestion and analysed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The analysed elements included trace metals (Fe, Mn, Zn) toxic metals (Pb, Cd, As), transition metals (Ta, Ti), alkali metals (Li), and metalloid (Se, As). Metal concentration varied widely among species and locations, with values ranging from Zn: not detected (nd)—3836.04 mg/kg dry weight (dw); As: nd—77.98 mg/kg dw; Pb: nd—301.15 mg/kg dw; Li: nd—97.28 mg/kg dw, indicating diverse metal accumulation patterns. Human health risk was evaluated using the target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). Arsenic consistently exceeded the THQ threshold of one across all sites, and all the HI values were greater than one for all edible species, suggesting potential non-carcinogenic health risks associated with the consumption, except for M. glacialis, which is not commonly consumed. The HI metrics demonstrate the adverse impacts of metal concentration in marine biota. The observed spatial and biological variability in metal accumulation highlights the limitations of relying solely on metal concentrations for assessing health risks, food safety or anthropogenic contamination, and therefore more frequent and comprehensive monitoring is recommended. Full article

Background: Calcium formulations are important nutritional interventions for improving insufficient calcium intake and assisting in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. In vitro and in vivo performance may be influenced by dosage form, calcium source, and formulation composition. In this study, an integrated approach combining in vitro dissolution, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic evaluations was used to compare the comprehensive performance of nine calcium formulations and related functional components. Methods: The nine samples were coded as CS-1 to CS-9 according to a predefined order. Calcium release characteristics were determined under simulated gastrointestinal pH conditions using a flow-through cell system. Calcium concentrations in rat plasma, feces, and urine were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) to evaluate calcium exposure, excretion, and retention. Meanwhile, the bone-protective effects of different calcium preparations were assessed in a retinoic acid-induced osteoporotic ICR mouse model, and the pharmacodynamic performance of calcium citrate and various bone-derived peptide preparations was investigated in a calcium-deficient female Sprague–Dawley (SD) rat model. Results: CS-1 exhibited rapid and nearly complete calcium release in simulated gastric fluid and showed a relatively favorable dissolution profile under sequential gastrointestinal pH conditions. Calcium balance analysis indicated that calcium retention in rats was relatively higher after administration of CS-1. Animal experiments showed that different calcium sources and bone-derived peptide preparations improved bone-related parameters to varying degrees, among which CS-1 produced relatively consistent improvements in bone microarchitecture and biomechanical properties. As a functional component of the CS-1 formulation, salmon bone-derived ingredients showed activity in the comparative pharmacodynamic evaluation, suggesting that they may contribute to the overall bone-protective effect. Conclusions: Different calcium formulations showed distinct profiles in dissolution behavior, calcium retention, and bone-protective effects. Among the tested samples, CS-1 demonstrated relatively favorable overall performance, which may be related to its liquid dosage form and salmon bone-derived functional components. Full article

The rapid increase in electric vehicles has increased the generation of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and the need for efficient lithium recovery technologies. This study compared two distinct sulfation roasting routes, using sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) at 750 °C and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) at 550 °C, applied to black mass derived from lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM) batteries. Metal extraction efficiencies were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, while reaction products were identified by X-ray diffraction analysis. Sulfation roasting using Na₂SO₄ resulted in low lithium recovery for both materials, with maximum extractions of 5.7% for LFP and 24.5% for NCM. In contrast, H₂SO₄-assisted roasting achieved high lithium recovery from NCM black mass, reaching 90.8%, 91.5%, and 88.5% at 45, 90, and 180 min at 550 °C, respectively, with lithium predominantly converted into water-soluble lithium sulfate. Lithium extraction from LFP black mass remained below 13% under all conditions. Statistical analysis confirmed that lithium recovery at 45 min was equivalent to longer residence times, while prolonged roasting increased manganese coextraction and altered cobalt and nickel behavior. Overall, sulfuric acid-assisted sulfation roasting is an efficient and energy-favorable route for lithium recovery from NCM black mass, whereas sulfation roasting is unsuitable for LFP materials, under the tested conditions. The results highlight the importance of cathode chemistry segregation and demonstrate the feasibility of reducing processing time without compromising lithium recovery. Full article

The development of reusable nanomaterials for the extraction of trace-metals from complex matrices remains challenging because strong metal-chelating functionalities often hinder desorption and regeneration, whereas weaker binding sites compromise selectivity and enrichment efficiency. This limitation has been addressed by designing a ligand-engineered fibrous mesoporous silica nanomaterial (Van-KCC-1) via the integration of the unique structural features of KCC-1 with an o-vanillin-derived Schiff-base chelator. The material was synthesized throughout the chemical grafting of 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) onto fibrous mesoporous silica KCC-1, followed by condensation with 3-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzaldehyde (o-vanillin). The successfulness of functionalization and Schiff-base formation were confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The radially oriented fibrous channels of KCC-1 provide a highly accessible surface that remains available for interaction with the targeted ions even after chemical modification. This architecture facilitates rapid mass transfer and efficient utilization of binding sites, while the incorporated Schiff-base ligand introduces imine, phenolic, and methoxy donor groups capable of selectively and reversibly coordinating Ni(II) and Cd(II). The resulting balance between adsorption strength and desorption efficiency enables both effective metal capture and sorbent reusability. More importantly, the study demonstrates how KCC-1 can serve as a versatile nanosilica scaffold for the incorporation of tailored chelating ligands without sacrificing structural accessibility. The functionalized nanomaterial was evaluated as a dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE) sorbent coupled with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Under optimized conditions, linear ranges of 0.035–50 μg L⁻¹ for Ni(II) and 0.058–50 μg L⁻¹ for Cd(II) were obtained, with limits of detection of 0.011 and 0.019 μg L⁻¹, respectively. The method exhibited excellent precision (relative standard deviation ≤ 3.6%) and recoveries of 92.00–98.83% in certified reference materaisl (NIST CRM 1643d), mineral water, tap water and synthetic wastewater. In addition, the nanochelator has retained more than 87% of its initial sorption efficiency after six adsorption–desorption cycles and showed minimal interference from common coexisting ions. These findings establish Van-KCC-1 as an efficient, selective, and reusable DSPE sorbent in the determination of trace-metals while highlighting the broader potential of fibrous mesoporous silica KCC-1 as a platform for the rational design of next-generation chelated nanomaterials. Full article

Sustaining human presence on the Moon depends on access to strategic metals, which can be achieved by directly utilizing extraterrestrial resources through in situ resource utilization (ISRU). This study presents novel insights and preliminary results into a previously unexplored strategy for metals extraction from the lunar regolith simulant Lunar Mare Soil (LMS-1) using deep eutectic solvents (DESs). Based on inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) measurements, the solubility of major oxide components of the regolith, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, Cr₂O₃, MgO and FeO_T, was investigated in ethaline (choline chloride:ethylene glycol, ChCl:EG) as well as reline (ChCl:Urea). Although both DESs enabled oxide dissolution, reline exhibited significantly higher dissolution efficiency, due to the additional hydrogen-bond donor sites, NH and CO groups from urea, as well as high chloride activity in the reline. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and square wave voltammetry (SWV) revealed that dissolved metal species in the reline–regolith system undergo complex multivalent redox transitions. The equilibrium potentials of the metals were determined and correlated with the order in which the metals should be electrodeposited on the cathode from an electrolyte containing dissolved lunar regolith. Based on the data from electrochemical measurements, parameters for electrolysis were selected. At less negative overpotentials, the deposit consisted mainly of Si, while Al, Cr, and Fe, along with Si, were electrodeposited at more negative potentials. The results highlight the importance of considering the selective electrochemical extraction of metals from DESs using lunar regolith as the source. Full article

Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) affect over 40% of the global population and represent a substantial health and economic burden. Gandhaga Dravagam (GD) is a classical Siddha mineral-based distillate prepared from sulfur, potassium nitrate, and alum, traditionally indicated for gastrointestinal complaints such as diarrhea, indigestion, and colonic spasm. This study aimed to standardize GD using organoleptic and physicochemical evaluation, qualitative acid-radical and basic-radical tests, elemental analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), as well as to assess its antispasmodic potential against acetylcholine (ACh)-induced contractions in an isolated rat ileum model. GD was a clear acidic liquid (pH 2.05 at 10% aqueous dilution) with a specific gravity of 1.0142 at 25 °C. Qualitative analysis confirmed carbonate, sulfate, phosphate, and nitrate radicals. ICP-OES identified sulfur (501.254 mg/L) as the predominant element, followed by aluminum (155.341 mg/L), potassium (100.121 mg/L), phosphorus (56.341 mg/L), and sodium (1.320 mg/L); arsenic, mercury, lead, manganese, and magnesium were below detection limits. XRD revealed crystalline inorganic phases consistent with the sulfur-, potassium-, and aluminum-based constituents. At a single concentration (2% v/v), GD reduced ACh-induced contractile responses by 40.74–56.25% across all ACh concentrations tested (5–80 µg), indicating a consistent antispasmodic effect. These findings provide a preliminary analytical and pharmacological characterization of GD and warrant further mechanistic, toxicological, and clinical evaluation. Full article