Search Results (1,743)

Food safety requires real-time monitoring of mycotoxins in food, as food products contaminated with these toxins poses major threat to human health. In this study, we proposed a remote-controlled microfluidic platform (RCMP) integrated with chemiluminescent/colorimetric detection system for rapid, cost-effective and real-monitoring of multiple mycotoxins in real samples based on the indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ic-ELISA). The RCMP enabled sensitive and automatic detection of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in the range of 4–128 ng/mL, 1–32 ng/mL, and 0.5–16 ng/mL, respectively. The limits of detection (LOD) were 2.881 ng/mL for DON, 0.702 ng/mL for ZEA, and 0.470 ng/mL for FB1. In further validation, satisfactory recoveries between 93.57% to 108.47% with the relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 6.92–11.39% were obtained in beer samples. Overall, RCMP provides an automatic, high-throughput and cost-effective method for detection of DON, ZEA, and FB1 and can be confidently applied for monitoring in beer samples. Full article

A three-year experiment was conducted over the years 2020–2022 to determine the spectrum of microscopic fungi colonizing the grain of two fungicide-treated cultivars of spring barley and the profiles of mycotoxins identified in grain. In comparison with the unprotected control, fungicide treatment significantly increased grain yield by an average of approximately 10% in cv. Atrika and approximately 20% in cv. Vermont. The most abundantly isolated species were Alternaria alternata and Bipolaris sorokiniana. Fungi of the genus Fusarium were also widely represented, accounting for 7% to 27% of all isolates, depending on the year. Each year, 45 secondary fungal metabolites produced mainly by Fusarium and Alternaria species were identified. Fungicide protection did not reduce the overall concentration of Fusarium toxins and even caused a slight increase, while contributing to a decrease in the levels of nivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and deoxynivalenol. Concurrently, the concentrations of group A trichothecenes and moniliformin increased. The grain of spring barley cv. Vermont contained higher levels of the major Fusarium toxins than the grain of cv. Atrika. Non-parametric Friedman ANOVA revealed significant differences between years for eight mycotoxin concentrations. These results confirm the complex effects of chemical protection on the composition of grain microflora and mycotoxin profiles, indicating the need for further research into interactions between cultivars, environmental conditions, and integrated plant protection strategies in the production of food and feed cereals to improve food safety. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a Fusarium-derived mycotoxin widely found in grain-based feed, has become a major global environmental contaminant. Reproductive toxicity is one of its most important toxic effects, yet systematic investigations covering both male and female reproductive injury remain limited. This study aimed to establish a combined strategy of network toxicology, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and single-cell RNA sequencing to evaluate the reproductive toxicity of DON. AKT1, EGFR, PIK3CA, PIK3R1, and SRC were identified as key targets involved in DON-induced reproductive injury. For testicular injury, the prolactin, Ras, HIF-1, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathways were closely associated with DON toxicity. For ovarian injury, the PI3K-Akt, HIF-1, prolactin, insulin, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathways were strongly implicated. Molecular docking demonstrated favorable binding affinities between DON and the hub targets, while molecular dynamics simulation further confirmed the stability of the DON–PIK3CA complex. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed that these five hub genes were highly expressed in both testicular (SRA667709:SRS3065430) and ovarian (SRA638923:SRS2797100) tissues. These findings deepen current understanding of DON-induced reproductive toxicity, provide new insights into the effects of environmental toxins on reproductive health, and offer a theoretical basis for future studies integrating DON exposure with in vivo validation of core targets and signaling pathways. Full article

Apples are highly susceptible to fungal infections, particularly by Alternaria species, which can lead to fruit deterioration and mycotoxin contamination during storage. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of untargeted liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) as a control-oriented strategy to detect Alternaria-infected apples under retail and long-term storage conditions. Healthy Red Delicious apples were artificially inoculated with three Alternaria tenuissima strains on the fruit surface or core and incubated at 25 °C or 4 °C. Extracts were analysed by UPLC-HRMS in both positive and negative electrospray ionisation modes, followed by multivariate chemometric analysis. Principal component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis consistently discriminated infected from non-infected apples, independent of strain, infection site, or incubation temperature. Feature selection based on variable importance values significantly improved model robustness and predictive performance. The metabolomic profiles also enabled discrimination according to Alternaria strain, infection site, storage temperature, and selected combinations of these factors. The results demonstrate that LC-HRMS-based untargeted metabolomics could provide a statistically robust framework for detecting Alternaria tenuissima infection in apples under the studied conditions. Full article

Trichothecene mycotoxins, especially T-2 toxin, represent a significant threat to food safety and public health. Although the enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol has been extensively investigated, there are few reports of enzymes capable of efficiently degrading T-2 toxin. This study identified that the aldo-keto reductase AKR13B3 from Devosia A6-243 exhibits 3-keto-DON-degrading and a little T-2 toxin-degrading activity. To address this limitation, a rational design strategy targeting the substrate-binding pocket was employed to enhance its activity. Utilizing site-directed and combinatorial mutagenesis, a double mutant R134F/D217A was successfully screened. R134F/D217A retains catalytic activity towards 3-keto-DON while significantly enhancing its catalytic capacity for T-2. Specifically, the R134F/D217A variant exhibited a 2.88-fold increase in catalytic activity and a 3.15-fold enhancement in catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) relative to the wild type enzyme. Notably, a substantial improvement in thermal stability was also observed. After incubation at 55 °C, the residual activity of the R134F/D217A mutant was 2.63 times that of the wild type. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and three-dimensional structural modeling suggested the mechanistic basis for the enhanced performance of the R134F/D217A double mutant. Catalytic enhancement stems from a shortened nucleophilic attack distance, a positively biased electrostatic environment, combined with an enlarged pocket and reduced binding free energy. Concurrently, the increased thermal stability results from decreased flexibility and a more rigid structural architecture. This work presents the first report of AKR13B3 as an effective enzyme for T-2 toxin transformation, and its catalytic activity was significantly enhanced through rational design. Thus, a novel enzymatic strategy was proposed, and could inform future approaches to study issues related to T-2 toxin contamination. Full article

Wildlife acts as a sentinel of environmental pollution, providing critical insights into potential risks to human health within the One Health framework. However, knowledge on the occurrence of legacy and emerging contaminants in wildlife, as well as their potential trophic transfer to humans, remains limited. Thus, monitoring contaminants in terrestrial wildlife, particularly in game species, is especially relevant, as game meat represents an important source of high-quality protein that must be safeguarded. This review summarizes current evidence on chemical contaminant levels in terrestrial wildlife from a “One Health” perspective. Despite the growing relevance of this approach, few studies have explicitly applied this term, and even fewer have focused on game meat, resulting in an incomplete picture of contamination. Although reported contaminants—metals, metalloids, pesticides, microplastics, and mycotoxins—originate from overlapping natural and anthropogenic sources, such as ammunition, agriculture, and industrial activities, a strong dependence on local environmental conditions continues to hamper cross-regional comparisons and the establishment of representative exposure levels. Overall, this review highlights the need for systematic monitoring of contaminants in terrestrial wildlife, with emphasis on emerging pollutants that are currently underrepresented in literature, to improve risk assessment, protect food safety, and better understand the impacts of environmental contamination on animal and human health. Full article

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most devastating diseases of cereal crops worldwide, causing yield losses and mycotoxin contamination. Traditionally associated with warm and humid climates, FHB has increasingly affected cooler and drier regions, including the Volga region of Russia—a major grain-producing area once considered low-risk. In this three-year field study, we evaluated FHB resistance in 50 winter rye accessions under natural infection and artificially enriched infectious backgrounds using high-virulence Fusarium strains from the Volga region. Post-invasive resistance to FHB was generally weak across the tested germplasm. Nevertheless, considerable variability in FHB damage was observed among accessions. Accessions showing the lowest overall FHB severity were identified as promising donors for breeding programs. Specific resistance sources to individual Fusarium species were identified, notably Fusarium sporotrichioides—previously regarded as a weak pathogen but demonstrated here as a serious food safety threat. No significant positive correlation was found between FHB severity and mycotoxin levels, confirming these as partially independent traits; several accessions maintained low mycotoxin content despite severe symptoms. Our study highlights the necessity of multi-environment screening with local pathogen strains and endorses pyramiding approaches for durable FHB resistance in winter rye breeding. Full article

This study provides a combined profile of fungal isolates from fresh and dried chili peppers in markets in Guangzhou. Multilocus sequence analysis revealed a wide variety of species, seven of which were reported for the first time from chili pepper (F. annulatum, F. compactum, F. pernambucanum, F. ramsdenii, and F. tardichlamydosporum, P. citrinum and P. steckii). In this research work, quantitative determination using targeted LC–MS/MS of dried chili peppers showed a significantly higher frequency of contamination and higher toxin concentrations than fresh samples. The predominant mycotoxins in dried peppers were DON and FB₁, which were present in all the samples at mean levels of 0.56 µg/g and 0.067 µg/g, respectively. AFB₁ and OTA were present in all dried samples but were detected only occasionally in fresh peppers. ZEN and CIT were detected at lower concentrations, but more prevalent among dried products (63.6% and 81.8% of all samples, respectively). The aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) level of 180 µg/kg in dried chili samples was 36 times above the EU maximum limit (5 µg/kg), and the OTA level reached 54 µg/kg, exceeding the EU limit by a factor of 2.7 (20 µg/kg). Statistical analysis also showed that all six mycotoxins were statistically higher in dried pepper than in fresh pepper. In vitro evaluation demonstrated that certain Fusarium isolates synthesized FB₁. At the same time, Penicillium species, including P. citrinum and P. steckii, consistently produced citrinin, confirming the strong influence of growth substrate on toxin biosynthesis. The frequent occurrence and elevated levels of regulated mycotoxins highlight significant public health concerns and underscore the need for improved postharvest handling and drying practices. These findings provide critical baseline data linking fungal diversity with toxin production dynamics, developing essential guidance for targeted mitigation strategies. Full article

Background: Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium species that commonly contaminates cereal crops, posing serious threats to crop productivity and food safety. In plants, FB1 inhibits ceramide synthase, disrupts sphingolipid metabolism, and induces growth inhibition and programmed cell death. Despite the agricultural importance of fumonisin contamination, genetic strategies to enhance FB1 tolerance or detoxification capacity in crops remain limited, largely due to an incomplete understanding of the underlying genetic determinants. Methods: To identify genetic determinants associated with FB1 tolerance, we exploited natural variation in Arabidopsis thaliana and conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS). Candidate genes were further examined using gene expression analyses and functional characterization of overexpression and SALK mutant lines. Results: GWAS revealed a significant association locus on chromosome 1 linked to FB1 tolerance. Two adjacent genes within this locus, AT1G14750 and AT1G14755, were identified as positive regulators of FB1 tolerance. Both genes were rapidly induced upon FB1 exposure. Functional analyses demonstrated that overexpression of either gene significantly enhanced tolerance to FB1-induced damage, whereas SALK mutant lines displayed increased sensitivity, manifested by enhanced growth inhibition and necrosis. Conclusions: Our study identifies AT1G14750 and AT1G14755 as previously uncharacterized components of FB1 tolerance in Arabidopsis. These findings provide new insights into the genetic architecture of plant response to mycotoxin stress and establish a foundation for further studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying FB1 tolerance. Full article

Type B trichothecenes (B-TCTs), predominant mycotoxins in wheat, threaten human health. However, their contamination profile in China, a major wheat producer, remains unclear. This study analyzed 1337 wheat samples (2022–2024) from main production areas using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and deterministic assessment to investigate B-TCTs’ watershed-scale distribution, spatiotemporal variations, associated health risks, and key climatic drivers. Results indicate that deoxynivalenol (DON) and its transformation product DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) were the predominant contaminants, while nivalenol (NIV) was detected in specific river basins. Although overall exposure was low, elevated risks were identified in certain basins during particular years, especially for young children. DON-3G contributed 23.5% to total DON exposure. Relative humidity (rs = 0.34, p < 0.01), precipitation (rs = 0.37, p < 0.01), and its duration (rs = 0.38, p < 0.01) during the flowering-to-harvest period were identified as critical climatic drivers. The findings highlight the need to include DON-3G in food safety regulations and to develop climate-adapted control strategies. Full article

Penicillium species are major postharvest pathogens of fruits and vegetables, causing significant economic losses and posing serious threats to food safety through mycotoxin contamination. This review systematically summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms, metabolic diversity, and eco-friendly strategies of postharvest Penicillium pathogens. The application of CRISPR-Cas9 technology has enabled precise functional analysis of pathogenicity-related genes (e.g., PacC, PeStuA) and regulatory elements involved in fungicide resistance (e.g., FlbC). RNA interference-based strategies, including host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) and spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS), offer promising non-transgenic approaches for disease control. Additionally, artificial intelligence-assisted species identification and fermentation regulation have improved research efficiency. Future integration of multidisciplinary technologies will facilitate sustainable management of postharvest diseases. Full article

Cecina de León is a traditional Spanish dry-cured beef product whose surface, as in other similar meat products, becomes heavily colonised by fungi during ripening, raising concerns related to possible mycotoxin contamination. This study aimed to characterise the mycobiota associated with cecina and its production environment, with particular emphasis on mycotoxigenic Penicillium species. Seventy-eight cecina samples and 26 air samples were collected from meat-processing plants and local markets in the province of León (Spain) and analysed for fungal counts, water activity and pH. A total of 101 mould isolates and 16 yeasts were recovered, with Penicillium accounting for 88% of all moulds. Sixteen Penicillium species were identified using a polyphasic approach integrating macro- and micromorphological analysis, extrolite production, molecular markers (BenA, CaM and ITS), and MALDI-TOF MS. Mycotoxin screening by HPTLC and HPLC-PDA targeted cyclopiazonic acid, ochratoxin A, patulin, citrinin, griseofulvin and mycophenolic acid, revealing that 51% of the Penicillium isolates were mycotoxin producers, mainly P. commune. The proposed polyphasic strategy, including MALDI-TOF MS as a rapid complementary tool, offers a practical framework for the surveillance of fungal communities and mycotoxin risk in meat-processing environments. Full article

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common contaminant found in swine diets, causing decreased growth performance and poor health. Additionally, F18 enterotoxigenic E. coli is a leading cause of post-weaning diarrhea. Nursery pigs are often exposed to each of them after weaning; however, it is unknown what impact the combination of these stressors has on gastrointestinal health. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of pre-exposure to DON on the response of intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) to challenge with enterotoxigenic F18 E. coli. Four groups were compared: Control (untreated cells), DON (cells treated with 0.5 μM DON for 24 h), F18 E. coli (multiplicity of infection 5:1, varied duration) and DON + E. coli (DON treatment with subsequent E. coli infection). Gene expression of IL-8, IL-6 and TNFα was significantly increased in cells infected with E. coli for 3 h vs. uninfected cells (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively). There was an interactive effect between DON and E. coli on IL-8 gene expression; cells pretreated with DON before E. coli infection had a higher expression of IL-8 than those not pretreated (p < 0.05). The concentration of IL-8 protein was significantly increased by E. coli (p < 0.0001). Claudin 1 and Occludin protein abundance were reduced by E. coli as measured by Western blot. Cytotoxicity was increased by E. coli vs. Control (p < 0.05). Pretreatment with DON increased the amount of E. coli that adhered to IPEC-J2 cells (p < 0.01) 30 min post-infection. FITC-dextran passage was increased in the DON + E. coli treatment vs. E. coli alone (p < 0.0001). Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was decreased by DON when compared to untreated cells at 0 h (p < 0.0001). Similarly, DON + E. coli exhibited lower TEER vs. E. coli alone at 2 h post-infection (p < 0.0001). Taken together, these results indicate that DON pre-exposure increased the severity of E. coli infection on endpoints such as barrier permeability and E. coli adhesion. Full article

The objective of this study was to evaluate the preharvest application of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), melatonin (MT), and oxalic acid (OA), at different concentrations and application frequencies, on the physicochemical and microbiological quality of dried figs (cv. Calabacita) at commercial harvest and after 3 and 6 months of refrigerated storage. A further aim was to determine their impact on fungal populations and mycotoxin production. The results showed that untreated dried figs had a higher frequency of Aspergillus welwitschiae, A. tubingensis, and Aspergillus section Flavi, whereas elicitor-treated figs exhibited a lower incidence of toxigenic fungi. A. welwitschiae was the main ochratoxin A (OTA)-associated species detected, although the proportion of OTA-positive figs was lower in elicitor-treated samples than in the control. Aflatoxins (AFs) were detected only sporadically in 2 mM OA treatments, consistent with the limited activity of A. flavus at low storage temperatures. Conversely, Penicillium spp. were widespread but were associated with citrinin (CIT) production only under 2 mM OA treatments. Among the Alternaria toxins, alternariol (AOH) was detected solely in dried figs treated with 1 mM OA. Notably, all investigated mycotoxins were below the limit of detection (<LOD) in dried figs treated with 0.5 mM MT. Moderate elicitor concentrations (e.g., 0.5 mM MT and 50 mM GABA) and multiple preharvest applications generally provided the best balance between fungal suppression and fruit quality, significantly reducing Aspergillus spp. occurrence without promoting the growth of undesirable species. Overall, elicitor treatments decreased the incidence of toxigenic fungi, most likely through direct antifungal effects in senescent dried fruit rather than by inducing host defences. The combined use of preharvest elicitors with appropriate drying and storage conditions is a promising strategy to control fungal contamination and mycotoxin accumulation in dried figs while maintaining quality from preharvest storage. Further research is needed to optimise elicitor concentrations and application timing. Full article

Biological control agents (BCAs) have emerged as a key strategy to mitigate maize diseases while reducing dependence on synthetic agrochemicals, which pose risks to human health, ecosystems, and microbial diversity. This review synthesizes advances from 63 research articles published between 2020 and 2025, selected through a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach to capture studies with in vitro, greenhouse, or field validation. The analysis highlights major fungal and bacterial threats to maize production and evaluates BCAs, including Bacillus, Trichoderma, Streptomyces, and entomopathogenic or endophytic microorganisms, tested across multiple experimental levels. Results show that many agents demonstrate strong antagonism under controlled conditions, promoting plant growth, reducing pathogen incidence, and lowering mycotoxin contamination. Field trials, however, reveal inconsistent performance due to environmental variability, formulation instability, and incomplete understanding of strain-specific mechanisms. Emerging approaches such as microbial consortia, metabolite-based biocontrol, biochar–microbe combinations, and evaluations under dual-stress conditions offer promising avenues to improve reliability and expand applicability. Overall, the review underscores that although microbial biocontrol holds substantial potential for sustainable maize protection, progress toward scalable implementation requires integrating omics-based characterization, optimized formulations, genotype-specific evaluations, and multi-season field trials to bridge the gap between laboratory efficacy and field performance. Full article