Search Results (1,467)

WPR (WEB1/PMI2-related) genes play a crucial role in regulating chloroplast movement and leaf coloration in plants. Previous studies have shown that these genes are implicated in leaf yellowing, both in Arabidopsis thaliana and in Paulownia fortunei following infection with Paulownia witches’ broom. To investigate the functions of the ZjWPR genes in jujube, bioinformatics methods were employed to identify the ZjWPR gene family in jujube, analyze their protein physicochemical properties, gene structure, evolutionary relationships, and cis-acting elements in this study. The results revealed that the ZjWPR gene family in jujube comprised 10 members. Phylogenetic analysis showed that WPR genes were divided into two classes, with ZjWPR genes distributed across three subgroups within Class II. Conserved motif analysis indicated that motif 2, motif 3, motif 7, and motif 8 were the most highly conserved and most genes exhibited similar structures. Cis-element analysis in their promoter suggested that ZjWPR genes were regulated by multiple hormones and were associated with stress responses such as low temperature and drought. Moreover, all ZjWPR genes contained light-responsive elements. Expression analysis of the ZjWPR gene family under Jujube Witches’ Broom (JWB) stress showed that ZjWPR4 and ZjWPR5 were significantly up-regulated in JWB-susceptible jujube cultivars following phytoplasma infection, whereas no significant changes were detected in JWB-resistant cultivars. Additionally, the expression levels of ZjWPR2, ZjWPR3, and ZjWPR6 were also altered in response to infection, suggesting their potential involvement in the response to JWB stress and the associated leaf chlorosis process. Moreover, transient overexpression of ZjWPR4 and ZjWPR5 in sour jujube leaves led to significant reductions, in critical photosynthetic parameters, including Fv/Fm, Fq′/Fm′, and ETR compared with WT, thereby reinforcing their functional contribution to JWB-associated leaf yellowing. This study provides valuable insights for further functional characterization of the ZjWPR gene family in mediating JWB-induced leaf yellowing and related metabolic pathways. Full article

Trehalose-6-phosphate (T6P) is involved in the regulation of plant growth and stress-related responses; however, its potential role in post-drought recovery remains unclear in legume crops. This study evaluated whether foliar application of native T6P could improve growth, yield formation, and physiological recovery in adzuki bean after pre-flowering drought stress. We aimed to propose a model for the production and drought tolerance regulation in adzuki bean. A three-year field experiment was conducted by applying T6P at both the budding stage and the initial pod stage. The plant architecture, yield, photosynthetic characteristics, defensive enzyme activity, sugar metabolism and hormone changes were evaluated. The results indicated that T6P significantly increased root, stem and leaf parameters in adzuki bean it also increased all yield traits except for the main stem branches and sections during post-drought recovery. Indeed, the yield per block of 5μM and 10μM of T6P application during post-drought recovery increased by 20.66% and 31.60% on average compared to the control under well-watered conditions and by 47.68% and 60.20% under drought stress during the three experimental years. Foliar T6P treatment was associated with higher antioxidant enzyme activities and related gene expression, lower ROS accumulation and proline content, and changes in sugar- and hormone-related traits during post-drought recovery. Therefore, foliar application of T6P at the budding and initial pod stages improved growth, yield formation, and post-drought recovery in adzuki bean. The result provide a novel strategy for T6P application for coordinating the high production potential and crop resilience. Full article

Salt stress severely restricts plant growth and reduces crop yield. Strigolactones (SLs) are carotenoid-derived phytohormones involved in the regulation of plant salt tolerance. Salt stress can modulate the expression of SL biosynthetic and signaling genes, thereby affecting SL accumulation and signaling responses. SLs also interact with abscisic acid (ABA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and other signaling molecules to coordinate downstream stress responses. At the physiological level, SLs alleviate salt stress by maintaining Na⁺/K⁺ homeostasis, enhancing osmotic adjustment and antioxidant defense, and reducing damage to the photosynthetic system. In addition, SLs can enhance plant resource acquisition and adaptive capacity under salt stress by regulating root architecture and promoting hyphal branching of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). This review focuses on SL-mediated regulation of plant salt tolerance at the molecular and physiological levels and further summarizes exogenous SL application strategies for alleviating salt stress, as well as research progress on key genes in the SL pathway for the genetic improvement of salt tolerance. Clarifying the potential of SLs in regulating plant responses to salt stress could provide new insights into sustainable crop production in saline-alkali environments. Full article

Saccharina japonica is an economically important stenohaline brown seaweed whose growth and yield are significantly affected by frequent salinity fluctuations in coastal aquaculture areas. The differences in salt tolerance and response characteristics among developmental stages and among tissue regions of adult-stage thalli remain unclear, and the dynamic temporal patterns of responses across stages and tissues have not been systematically elucidated. In this study, we compared the physiological responses of juvenile and adult-stage thalli under varying salinity conditions and further analyzed the responses of the basal, middle, and tip regions of adult-stage thalli to define stage- and tissue-specific patterns of salt tolerance. The results indicate that low-salinity stress caused more severe injury than high-salinity stress, as reflected by sustained decreases in Fv/Fm, increased accumulation of MDA, and aggravated tissue decay with green-rot symptoms. Juvenile sporophytes exhibited higher salt tolerance than adult-stage thalli, and within the latter, tolerance differed markedly among tissue regions, with the basal region showing greater tolerance than the middle and tip regions. The basal region maintained higher photosynthetic activity, lower lipid peroxidation levels, and more stable antioxidant and osmotic regulatory responses under stress, whereas the tip region experienced early photosynthetic inactivation and irreversible damage. qRT-PCR results showed that antioxidant- and osmotic-regulation-related genes, including SjGSH, SjGST, SjPro, SjSOD, and SjPOD, were differentially expressed under salinity treatments at 24 h and 72 h, and their expression dynamics were generally consistent with the changes in physiological indicators. Overall, this study demonstrates that the response of S. japonica to salinity stress exhibits clear developmental stage-dependent differences and tissue-specific characteristics. In adult-stage thalli, the tip region may serve as a sensitive monitoring region for low-salinity damage, the middle region may serve as a transitional region for evaluating the progression of stress-induced damage, and the basal region may be an important region for maintaining thallus growth and physiological homeostasis. This study also provides experimental evidence for low-salinity stress risk assessment, the management of key growth stages, the monitoring of sensitive tissues, and the evaluation of salt tolerance traits during S. japonica aquaculture. Full article

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is an economically important vegetable crop worldwide, but its yield and quality improvement are often constrained by drought stress. To investigate the physiological and molecular mechanisms by which exogenous allantoin enhances drought tolerance in cucumber, cucumber seedlings were sprayed with 6 mM allantoin solution once (A1), three times (A3), or five times (A5), while control plants were sprayed with distilled water (CK1, CK3, CK5). Each treatment consisted of three biological replicates. After treatment, drought stress was simulated by irrigating with 20% polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG-6000) solution. The results showed that the protective effect of exogenous allantoin against drought stress was cumulative. After five applications (A5), the net photosynthetic rate (Pn) and water-use efficiency (WUE) of the plants were significantly higher than those of the corresponding control (CK5) (p < 0.01). The detached leaf water loss rate progressively decreased with an increasing number of allantoin applications, while the total leaf wax content increased approximately 2-fold (p < 0.01). Measurements of wax content in different plant tissues indicated that allantoin mainly induced wax accumulation in aboveground organs (leaf, stem, and fruit epidermis), and this effect was validated in three commercial varieties. Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses revealed that the cucumber CsCER1 gene (encoding a very-long-chain aldehyde decarbonylase) is a core allantoin-responsive gene. After silencing CsCER1 using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), the allantoin-induced wax accumulation and drought tolerance were almost completely lost: the wilting severity and detached leaf water loss rate of the silenced plants were comparable to those of the empty vector control, and no significant increase in wax content was observed. This study reveals a novel mechanism by which exogenous allantoin enhances drought tolerance in cucumber through activating CsCER1-mediated cuticular wax synthesis, providing a theoretical basis for the chemical regulation of drought tolerance in cucurbit crops. Full article

Reliance on mineral fertilization in papaya cultivation raises sustainability concerns and drives demand for validated organic alternatives. This study tested whether integrating humic substances (HS) and sugarcane filter cake (FC) would stimulate photosynthetic physiology, upregulate carbon metabolism gene expression, and increase fruit yield in ‘Golden’ papaya while outperforming conventional NPK fertilization. A 12-month field experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with a factorial arrangement of four HS doses (0, 90, 180, and 270 mL plant⁻¹) combined with two FC doses (0 and 60 kg plant⁻¹) plus an NPK control, measuring photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange, relative expression of rbcL, ACC oxidase, invertase, relative growth rate, and fruit yield. Combined HS and FC increased chlorophyll a by up to 205%, chlorophyll b by 277%, and carotenoids by 208% relative to unamended controls. Gene expression was strongly induced: rbcL reached 202-fold, invertase 156-fold, and ACC oxidase 84.8-fold above control values. Photosynthetic rate followed a quadratic dose-response peaking near 90 mL plant⁻¹ HS. Fruit yield nearly doubled under the optimal combined treatment (115 t ha⁻¹) compared with unamended controls (62 t ha⁻¹) and NPK fertilization (66 t ha⁻¹). These results confirm that HS and FC act synergistically as dual-purpose amendments, improving soil fertility while biostimulating papaya physiology through coordinated upregulation of photosynthetic capacity and carbon partitioning toward reproductive sinks. Full article

For over 3000 years, the perennial herb mugwort (Artemisia argyi) has served as a cornerstone of traditional Asian medicine. Its clinical efficacy is driven by a diverse array of specialized metabolites, most notably flavonoids and volatile oils. While B-box (BBX) transcription factors are known to dictate photomorphogenic development and secondary metabolic pathways in plants, this specific gene family has not yet been systematically analyzed in A. argyi. Leveraging a chromosome-level genomic assembly, we comprehensively identified and analyzed the complete repertoire of AarBBX genes, profiling their structural organization, physicochemical attributes, conserved motifs, promoter architecture, and spatial expression dynamics. The AarBBX family segregates into five distinct evolutionary clades and comprises 114 members, exceeding the gene counts in the diploid relatives Artemisia annua (27) and Arabidopsis thaliana (32), a numerical increase potentially attributable to the tetraploid genome architecture of A. argyi. Promoter scanning revealed a high density of cis-acting elements linked to light perception and environmental stress responses. Integrating RNA-seq transcriptomics with tissue-specific expression profiling, we identified prominent candidate light-responsive AarBBX genes that are highly active in green, photosynthetic tissues and acutely responsive to shifts in light conditions, providing a foundation for future exploration of their potential relationship with secondary metabolic pathways, including flavonoid and terpenoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, we validated the potential operational compartments and structural interactions of these proteins utilizing green fluorescent protein (GFP) subcellular localization and yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screenings. Collectively, these findings provide new insights into the evolutionary trajectory and regulatory potential of the B-box (BBX) proteins in A. argyi, offering a prioritized candidate gene set for subsequent investigations into their potential roles in light-regulated secondary metabolism, including flavonoid and terpenoid pathways. Full article

Tropical maize often exhibits photoperiod sensitivity, which limits its adaptation to temperate regions. Understanding its proteomic dynamics under long-day conditions is therefore crucial for germplasm improvement. This study employed a Tandem Mass Tag (TMT)-based proteomic approach to investigate stage-specific protein expression patterns in the tropical maize inbred line QR273 under long-day conditions (16 h light/8 h dark). Seeds were cultivated in climate chambers, and leaves were collected at the four-leaf (P4) and nine-leaf (P9) stages. A total of 2881 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were quantified between the P4 and P9 stages, among which only 7 were upregulated and 2874 were downregulated at the P9 stage. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that these DEPs were significantly enriched in processes related to proteolysis, membrane components, and ATP binding. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed the enrichment of DEPs in amino acid biosynthesis, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis pathways. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis identified 60S ribosomal protein L12, adenosine 5′-phosphosulfate reductase, and RuvB helicase as core hub proteins. Based on functional annotation of representative DEPs, the DEPs were classified into four categories: 9 proteins related to storage material protection, 14 proteins related to protein modification, 12 proteins related to photosynthesis, and 25 proteins with other biological functions. Comparative analysis demonstrated a decrease in storage material protection, protein modification, and photosynthetic capacity at the P9 stage relative to the P4 stage. These findings provide insights into the proteomic dynamics underlying tropical maize development under long-day conditions and offer a theoretical basis for genetic improvement of tropical maize germplasm. Notably, inferences regarding nutrient reallocation based on DEP downregulation are derived solely from proteomic data and require further experimental validation. Full article

Epichloë endophytes can confer diverse benefits to host grasses, but the differences in effects between strains from different populations are poorly understood. In this study, we compared the impacts of two Epichloë bromicola strains isolated from distinct geographic populations of Hordeum bogdanii: GS1 (from Linze County, Gansu Province) and WS1 (from Wensu County, Xinjiang Province). Through controlled inoculation experiments, we established two new symbionts—HE2 (WS1 transferred to endophyte-free GF plants) and HE3 (GS1 transferred to endophyte-free WF plants)—alongside the natural symbionts GI (GS1-harboring) and WI (WS1-harboring) and corresponding endophyte-free controls (GF and WF). Symbiosis was confirmed by microscopic observation of blue-stained hyphae, re-isolation of fungi, and molecular identification using tef and tub gene sequences. Strikingly, the two strains exerted opposite effects on host photosynthesis. GS1-colonized plants (GI and HE3) maintained normal chloroplast ultrastructure, showed increased chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid contents, and exhibited enhanced net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance, comparable to or exceeding those of control WF. In contrast, WS1-colonized plants (WI and HE2) had deformed chloroplasts, reduced pigment contents, and depressed gas exchange parameters, similar to control GF. Both newly generated symbionts accumulated more starch grains than their natural counterparts, indicating altered carbon partitioning. Phenotypic patterns were consistent across natural and novel associations, suggesting that fungal genotype drives outcomes. Differing physiological effects caused by strains from the same species and the same host but different populations indicate the importance of strain-level selection in agricultural applications. GS1 shows promise as a growth-promoting bioinoculant to enhance photosynthesis and productivity in forage grasses, particularly under marginal conditions. This study highlights how intraspecific variation and local adaptation shape grass–endophyte interactions and informs targeted use of symbionts in sustainable agriculture. Full article

Fruit color is a key quality indicator for apples and directly influences their market value. The process of fruit ripening encompasses various physiological and biochemical changes, such as the breakdown of chlorophyll and the buildup of anthocyanins and carotenoids. This study investigated the mechanism of chlorophyll degradation in apple peels using ‘Granny Smith’ varieties. The experiments involving the treatment with methyl jasmonate (MeJA) indicated that a concentration of 10 µM MeJA led to a reduction in chlorophyll degradation, while a higher concentration of 1500 µM MeJA enhanced this degradation, which aligned with the variations observed in the expression of genes associated with chlorophyll degradation. The key chlorophyll degradation gene MdSGR1 was cloned and found to be induced by methyl jasmonate. MdSGR1 encodes a 283-amino-acid protein belonging to the stay-green superfamily. The promoter possesses inducible cis-acting elements that respond to methyl jasmonate, low temperature and light, while the protein is localized to chloroplasts. Overexpression and silencing vectors were constructed. Overexpression of MdSGR1 induced chlorosis in tobacco leaves and ‘Granny Smith’ apple peels, decreased chlorophyll content, and upregulated related gene expression. Conversely, silencing MdSGR1 produced opposite effects. Arabidopsis thaliana plants overexpressing MdSGR1 exhibited low chlorophyll content, reduced photosynthetic rate, upregulated expression of genes associated with chlorophyll degradation. The results of yeast one-hybrid and dual-luciferase reporter assays indicated that the MdMYC2 transcription factor interacts with the promoter region of MdSGR1. In conclusion, MdSGR1 is crucial for the degradation of chlorophyll in apple peel, and it is regulated both by the MdMYC2 transcription factor and different concentrations of MeJA. This study preliminarily elucidated the regulatory mechanism of methyl jasmonate on chlorophyll degradation in fruit peel, and these findings provide an important theoretical basis for controlling degreening and color quality in apple fruit. Full article

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a persistent organic pollutant widely detected in aquatic ecosystems, but its subcellular targets and the mechanisms by which it disrupts light resource utilization in photosynthetic protozoa remain poorly understood at concentrations spanning environmentally typical to supra-environmental levels. Here, Euglena gracilis G.A. Klebs was exposed to PFOS at concentrations spanning environmentally typical (0.5 µg/L), hotspot-relevant (5 µg/L), and supra-environmental (50 µg/L) levels. Subcellular distribution, phototaxis, photosynthetic light reactions, and energy metabolism were investigated using isolated chloroplast assays, transcriptomics, and proteomics. TEM-EDS mapping revealed pronounced fluorine signal enrichment, attributable to PFOS, in the eyespot and chloroplasts. Eyespot fluorine enrichment was associated with impaired phototactic motility and an altered light perception threshold. PFOS did not acutely inhibit the maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm); instead, a transient upregulation of photosynthesis-related genes was observed, which weakened with prolonged exposure, whereas the photosynthetic electron transport rate (ETR) was significantly reduced. PFOS significantly reduced ATP levels and ETR, while Fv/Fm remained unchanged and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) was elevated. Isolated chloroplast assays revealed that PFOS inhibits Mg²⁺-dependent ATP hydrolytic activity in the chloroplast-enriched fraction and impairs thylakoid electron transport, consistent with impaired chloroplast ATP synthase function, though the specific molecular target and mechanism remain to be conclusively demonstrated. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses revealed compensatory upregulation of photosynthesis pathways but suppression of ATP synthesis and redox homeostasis. Collectively, our results suggest that PFOS impairs chloroplast ATP synthase function, accompanied by reduced ETR and elevated NPQ. Together with the eyespot-associated phototaxis impairment, these effects suggest that PFOS may dually disrupt light acquisition (behavioral) and light conversion (physiological) in E. gracilis. This dual impairment may compromise the ecological fitness of Euglena in PFOS-contaminated environments, especially under prolonged exposure. It should be noted that the subcellular fluorine mapping is qualitative, the phototaxis assay reflects population-level responses, and the ATP synthase impairment interpretation is indirect; the proposed mechanistic model remains a hypothesis requiring further direct experimental validation. Full article

Saline–alkali stress is a widespread adversity that severely affects plant growth and productivity. Plant-specific NAC transcription factors (TFs) play a crucial role in various pathways associated with stress responses. However, the function of NAC proteins in conferring tolerance to abiotic stress, along with the underlying mechanisms in apple (Malus domestica), remains incompletely understood. In this study, we identified MdNAC17 from the transcriptome of apple leaves under saline–alkali stress. The overexpression of MdNAC17 in apple calli tissue and Malus hupehensis roots significantly improved resistance to saline–alkali stress by enhancing reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging. Transgenic apple plants exhibited higher photosynthetic capacity and antioxidant enzyme activity, as well as less membrane damage. In contrast, silencing MdNAC17 using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) technology resulted in the opposite phenotype. Furthermore, MdNAC17 is associated with changes in the transcriptional levels of genes involved in Na⁺/K⁺ homeostasis. Overall, our results demonstrate that MdNAC17 positively regulates saline–alkali tolerance in apple. Full article

1-Deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) serves as the initial rate-limiting enzyme in the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway, governing the biosynthesis of precursors for photosynthetic pigments and terpenoids. In this study, the LaDXS2-2 gene was cloned and functionally characterized in lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). The full-length coding sequence (CDS) of LaDXS2-2 spans 2178 base pairs, encoding a protein of 725 amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that LaDXS2-2 is most closely related to the DXS from Salvia miltiorrhiza. Expression profiling demonstrated that LaDXS2-2 was highly expressed in flower buds, and its transcript levels were significantly upregulated (p < 0.05) in response to ethephon, high light intensity, and low temperature, while exhibiting tissue-specific responses to gibberellin application. Subcellular localization assays confirmed LaDXS2-2 is targeted to the chloroplast. Heterologous overexpression of LaDXS2-2 in tobacco resulted in a marked increase in photosynthetic pigment content, enhanced the actual photochemical efficiency of photosystem II [Y(II)], and reduced non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses further revealed that LaDXS2-2 overexpression activated the diterpenoid biosynthesis pathway and upregulated amino acid metabolism as well as the TCA cycle, while competitively suppressing phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. These findings indicate that LaDXS2-2 not only enhances photosynthetic efficiency by promoting the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments but also suggests a potential role in influencing primary carbon and nitrogen metabolism, as inferred from transcriptomic and metabolomic data. This functionality may ultimately influence plant growth and metabolic homeostasis. Overall, this study provides a theoretical foundation for the synergistic improvement of photosynthetic efficiency and secondary metabolism in crops. Full article

Cyanobacteria are increasingly recognised as photosynthetic chassis for sustainable metabolic engineering because oxygenic photosynthesis generates ATP and NADPH via the photosynthetic electron transport chain, which drive CO₂ fixation through the Calvin–Benson–Bassham cycle into carbon intermediates that can be redirected toward engineered heterologous pathways. Their genetic tractability, CO₂-fixing capacity, ecological adaptability, and relatively simple cellular organisation make them attractive platforms for developing low-carbon biotechnological processes. This review explores recent progress in engineering cyanobacteria for heterologous pathway construction, critically evaluating genetic tools including transformation methods, genome integration strategies, promoter systems, and CRISPR-based editing, with specific emphasis on challenges of direct relevance to phototrophic chassis: host–pathway metabolic compatibility, precursor supply, cofactor balancing between photosynthetic output and heterologous pathway demand, and achieving genetic stability in polyploid cyanobacterial genomes. The review also addresses key limitations with mechanistic context: metabolic burden from multi-gene pathway expression reduces growth rate and selects against producing cells; polyploidy delays complete chromosomal segregation of engineered constructs; slow photoautotrophic growth constrains volumetric productivity; native regulatory networks resist carbon flux redirection; and cultivation constraints—including light attenuation in dense cultures and mismatches between photosynthetic ATP/NADPH supply and heterologous pathway demand—further limit achievable yields. Full article

Salinity stress severely inhibits crop growth and reduces yield. Exogenous selenium (Se) enhances plant abiotic stress tolerance, but how different selenium forms exert their impacts and pathways in mitigating salinity remains ambiguous. Under salt stress, this work compared two Se forms, selenate [Se(VI)] and selenite [Se(IV)], regarding their impacts on development, photosynthetic performance, antioxidative system, osmotic regulators, Se buildup, and stress-related gene expression in Nicotiana tabacum L. Both Se species significantly promoted tobacco growth. (1) Under 150 mmol/L NaCl stress, biomass, net photosynthetic rate and antioxidant enzyme activities decreased significantly, while soluble sugar, free proline, Na⁺/K⁺, Na⁺/Ca²⁺, H₂O₂, MDA contents and NtROS2a, NtLEA5 expression increased significantly. (2) Exogenous Se increased biomass, photosynthetic parameters; antioxidant enzyme activities and NtNAC2, NtCDPK12, NtROS2a expression; elevated Se deposition in roots and leaves; and reduced oxidative damage, ion imbalance and NtLEA5 expression in salt-stressed tobacco, suggesting that Se may improve salt tolerance by regulating these physiological processes and stress-related gene expression. (3) Compared with Se(IV), Se(VI) significantly increased root length, chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, K⁺ content, SOD/CAT activities, leaf and root Se accumulation as well as and NtNAC2, NtCDPK12 expression, while Se(IV) resulted in higher root diameter, free proline content, Na⁺/K⁺ ratio and NtROS2a expression. In conclusion, both sodium selenate and sodium selenite effectively enhanced tobacco salt tolerance. The salt stress alleviation effect of Se(VI) may be associated with upregulating NtNAC2 and NtCDPK12 to improve antioxidant capacity and photosynthesis, thereby potentially maintaining cell membrane integrity and ion balance, while Se(IV) may exert its effect through upregulating NtROS2a to promote root thickening, reactive oxygen species scavenging and osmotic adjustment. At the tested concentrations, selenate was more effective. Full article