Search Results (77)

For two millennia, scholarship on the Zhuangzi has extracted doctrines, analyzed concepts, and dissected arguments, all of which is valuable and necessary. But in doing so, it has lost something essential: that these words are spoken by someone, that they emerge from lives, and that they belong to figures who appear, disappear, and reappear across textual landscapes. This study restores the drama to the doctrines by tracking a single name. Ziqi appears across eight chapters of the Zhuangzi as Nanguo Ziqi, Nanbo Ziqi, Nanbo Zikui, Dongguo Ziqi, Sima Ziqi, and simply Ziqi. His name wanders. Following him through caves, courts, scenes of instruction, vertiginous spirals into pity, armrest reveries, drunken collapses under trees, family picnics, and palaces of nothing whatsoever, this paper uncovers what a purely doctrinal approach cannot: that the philosophy of the Zhuangzi is inseparable from the lives that live it. Ziqi is not just a mouthpiece who robotically voices the abstract proposition “I lost myself” but a figure whose journey through the text gives those words their weight. More than illustrating doctrines, his journey creates the philosophy and constitutes its meaning. By reading Ziqi across his eight appearances and their variations, this study offers a model for reading the Zhuangzi as a textured literary world in which figures wander, words spill over, and meaning is made through the lives that live it. Full article

Prior to the Tang Dynasty, interpretations of the Laozi fell into two traditions: the Pre-Qin and Han tradition, represented by Yan Zun, and the Wei–Jin tradition, represented by Wang Bi. The commentaries on the Laozi in circulation today are influenced by metaphysics in emphasizing “non-being” (wu) as the substance of the Dao (dao). Yan Zun’s Laozi zhigui 老子指歸 (lit. “Purport of the Laozi”) is the oldest extant commentary. In his thought, Yan carries on the legacies of the Laozi and the Zhuangzi and serves as a precursor to later religious Daoism. Yan Zun established a triadic framework—comprising the Dao, Vacuity, and Spontaneity—that shaped Han and Tang Daoism. This reading inherits the Pre-Qin Daoist principle that takes Vacuity as its ontological root and yielding softness as its operative function, laying the theoretical foundation for religious Daoist thought in the Jin and Tang dynasties. Yan Zun’s interpretations of the Laozi frequently surprise modern scholars, yet his views align closely with the contents of the Mawangdui Laozi silk manuscripts (c. 168 BCE) and Peking University Western Han bamboo-slip Laozi (c. 150 BCE), which demonstrates his distinctive scholarly contribution and contemporary relevance. Full article

This paper examines the philosophical and ethical significance of “forgetting” in Dōgen’s thought. It argues that the deepest form of forgetting—“forgetting oneself”—is not a psychological loss but a transformative practice through which a self-centered mode of existence is relinquished, allowing access to a multi-dimensional world in which beings appear across different ontological and normative domains. The paper first distinguishes three modes of forgetting articulated in Dōgen’s writings, focusing on forgetting oneself as the pivotal moment that discloses the structure of such domains. It then clarifies this mode through a close reading of Genjōkōan, showing that Dōgen’s account neither collapses into monism nor into nihilistic negation, but instead articulates a mode of existence in which the self is verified by the myriad dharmas. Building on this analysis, the paper situates forgetting within an ethical context. While human life is shaped by particular moral norms, Dōgen’s thought reveals that each body-and-mind simultaneously participates in multiple physical, biological, and value-structured domains. Ethical responsiveness, on this view, does not arise from the application of fixed moral principles but from the capacity to perceive and respond to such plural domains through the practice of forgetting oneself. A comparative discussion with Zhuangzi and Nietzsche further clarifies this point by contrast, highlighting the distinctive ethical reach of Dōgen’s conception of forgetting. Full article

Zhuangzi, a seminal figure in ancient Chinese philosophy, offers profound insights into emotional well-being through his Qi-emotion theory. This paper examines Zhuangzi’s approach to emotional well-being by exploring the interplay between Qi (vital energy), atmosphere, and emotions. By drawing comparative perspectives from Neo-Phenomenology’s concept of atmosphere and the Chinese classical concept of Qi-feeling, the study challenges traditional views that emotions are solely internal phenomena. Instead, it proposes that emotions are field-like, arising from dynamic interactions between individuals and their environments. Through an in-depth analysis of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, particularly his methods of self-cultivation such as “fasting the mind” (xin zhai 心齋) and non-action (wu wei 無爲), this paper illustrates how aligning oneself with the Dao (the Way 道) and harmonizing Qi can lead to emotional balance and spiritual freedom. The study integrates Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, highlighting the significance of enlightened mind, embodiment, and atmospheric resonance in achieving emotional well-being. The findings suggest that Zhuangzi’s Qi-emotion theory provides valuable insights for contemporary philosophical practice and therapy by emphasizing the unity of mind, body, and environment. By fostering harmony with the natural world and transcending personal attachments, individuals can attain a state of inner peace and holistic well-being. Full article

As emotion becomes increasingly digitized, there is a growing risk that computational systems may overreach, shaping or managing affect in ways that undermine human autonomy. This study builds a cross-cultural dialog between Daoist affective philosophy and Western theories of emotion to address this problem. By comparing their assumptions about emotional life—what emotions are, how they should be guided, and what counts as appropriate intervention—the paper develops a set of ethical principles for the design of affective technologies. Through textual analysis and a historical–conceptual review, the study identifies three safeguards drawn from Daoist thought—minimality, autonomy, and reversibility—and translates them into practical guidance for data use, system behavior, and user interaction. A brief case from Finland’s well-being initiatives illustrates how these principles can redirect technological design toward supporting inner balance and self-directed regulation rather than external control. The paper’s contribution lies in offering a clear boundary ethics for affective computing, showing how Daoist ideas of moderation and self-cultivation can help prevent emotional alienation while still allowing technological systems to enhance human well-being. Full article

Ecocentrism has emerged as a significant theoretical paradigm for addressing ecological crises and promoting sustainable development. However, while influencing the evolution of ecological governance systems, it faces fundamental criticisms including accusations of being “eco-authoritarianism”, “anti-human”, and “utopian”. This study develops a theoretical defense of ecocentrism through Daoism’s three-dimensional framework encompassing ontology, value theory, and practice theory. First, the Daoist holistic concept of living together (bingsheng 並生)—grounded in the principle of “Dao as one”—deconstructs the ontological foundations of anthropocentrism while addressing ecocentrism’s alleged “dictatorial “tendencies. Second, the Daoist value paradigm of valuing life (guisheng 貴生) challenges anthropocentrism’s value hegemony while establishing ethical justification for ecocentrism. Third, Daoist practical philosophy—particularly the concept of nurturing life (yangsheng 養生)—demonstrates how the harmonious coexistence of heaven, earth, and humanity can be achieved through balanced integration of instrumental and value rationality in ecological governance, thereby resolving accusations of “utopianism”. The findings affirm that Daoist philosophy provides not only a robust theoretical defense for ecocentrism but also insightful practical wisdom for global environmental governance and the pursuit of sustainable development. Full article

This paper re-examines Daoist philosophy and practice through a feminist lens, arguing that Daoist cosmology articulates a dynamic ontology of gender grounded in cixiongtongti (雌雄同體, “the body of androgyny”). Drawing on classical and religious texts—including the Daodejing, Zhuangzi, Taishang Laojun Zhongjing, Santian Neijie Jing, and later alchemical writings—it demonstrates how Daoism envisions embodiment as a site of coexistence where masculine and feminine forces mutually generate and transform. Rather than privileging “feminine” values or reversing patriarchal hierarchies, Daoist yinyang metaphysics dissolves the binary itself, redefining equality as interdependence within difference. The study situates Daoism in dialogue with feminist and ecofeminist theories, acknowledging shared anti-dualist impulses while highlighting Daoism’s distinct cosmological grounding in the circulation of qi. Through analysis of textual metaphors and inner-alchemical practices such as male pregnancy and female transformation, the paper shows that Daoist cultivation performatively realizes male-female-co-existence (nannü gongsheng 男女共生) as both a philosophical and embodied principle. In doing so, it reveals Daoist thought as a vital resource for reimagining embodiment beyond essentialism—offering a non-hierarchical, pluralistic model of gender that integrates cosmology, corporeality, and spiritual practice. Full article

Judging a person’s appearance as beautiful or ugly is not a factual description but an aesthetic act. Kant believed that the human figure is the ideal of beauty, and at the same time, beauty can positively symbolize morality. However, regarding the correlation between aesthetics and morality, the Chapter “De Chong Fu 德充符” in the Zhuangzi offers us a strikingly insightful perspective that is transcendent and religious. The characters depicted in “De Chong Fu 德充符” have incomplete physical forms and ugly appearances, which seemingly do not qualify as symbols of morality in Kant’s sense. Yet, their behavior and demeanor precisely reflect their detachment from external physical forms and their inner virtue being full. This inner virtue embodies a religious ethic that transcends individual and subjective perspectives. This paper posits that there is a deeper and more thought-provoking connection between virtue and physical form in Zhuangzi’s philosophy. The aim of this paper is to explore the issue of self-transcendence in Zhuangzi’s philosophy from the perspective of religious ethics, using the relationship between the body, beauty, and virtue in Lao–Zhuang philosophy as a guiding thread. This paper will be divided into three main parts: the first part introduces the topic through the symbolic relationship between beauty and morality in Kant; the second part discusses the transcendence of aesthetics and physical form in Daoist philosophy and provides a section-by-section analysis of Chapter “De Chong Fu 德充符” of the Zhuangzi; and the third part summarizes the relationship between virtue and form in “De Chong Fu 德充符”. The paper argues that the transcendence of the physical form by virtue, as reflected in Chapter “De Chong Fu 德充符”, is an embodiment of religious ethics. In Lao–Zhuang philosophy, due to their deep understanding of the nature of beauty and the nature of the body, there is no necessary positive connection between beauty and form. Virtue does not necessarily need to rely on beauty as a symbol to be realized, and there can still be a positive connection between a defective physical form and virtue. In conclusions, the paper proposes the modern inspiration of self-transcendence reflected in Zhuangzi’s “De Chong Fu 德充符”. Full article

The significance of forgetting in the Zhuangzi and its methodological significance for living a good life in particular has long been recognized by Zhuangzian scholars. However, with regard to what is really meant by forgetting, scholars are still far from reaching some clear consensus. Thus, with the aim of clarifying what is meant by forgetting in the Zhuangzi, I propose a wholistic understanding of forgetting in terms of the Zhuangzian conception of human self-cultivation. On the one hand, it involves an analysis of how forgetting is used negatively in the Zhuangzi to characterize and explain human fallenness. On the other hand, it also entails a careful analysis of all positive uses of forgetting in the text to mean our elimination of chengxin, orientation to the Dao, and fitness with all things in harmony. Full article

Adopting a comparative philosophical approach and engaging in textual analysis, this paper reveals that the concept of Zhenren 真人—as the embodiment of Zhuangzi’s ideal personality—explicates the dual connotations and axiological foundations of “naturalness” (ziran 自然) as the central paradigm of his spiritual realm theory. In the Daoist context, naturalness encompasses two interrelated dimensions: the ontological “naturalness of the Dao” and the existential “naturalness of the Zhenren”. These dimensions are integrated through the practical principles of “assisting all things” and “accommodating their inherent tendencies.” At the level of realm discourse, Zhuangzi’s Zhenren stands apart from the rational, truth-seeking tradition of Western philosophy by pursuing naturalness-oriented cultivation. This gives rise to a distinctive realm system characterized by a psychological state of “equanimity and clarity”, an axiological orientation toward “primordial simplicity”, and a lived experience marked by “serene non-action”. Rooted in naturalness, this mode of self-cultivation not only offers a new theoretical framework for interpreting the ideal personality of the Daoist but also sheds light on the unique ethical significance of naturalness in Chinese philosophical discourse on morality. Full article

This paper examines the four-stage process of mystical experience in the Huzi and Lady Yu allegories of the Zhuangzi. It begins with a lifeless stage enabled by the mystic’s purgation of the world and the self. It is followed by a revitalization stage in which Oneness is experienced not only as the introvertive experience of the self but also as the extrovertive truth of reality. It is then followed by the mystic’s experience of emptiness that transfigures reality through the reconciliation of things and the cessation of time and motion. Eventually it leads to the deconstruction of the transcendental Dao and the following of the spontaneity of things. The allegories provide a rich variety of mystical experiences, such as the exuberance of vitality, tranquil emptiness, and bliss in reconciliation. As the core theme of mysticism, Oneness is not regarded as the superior and final stage, but rather paves the way for the reconciliation of things in the co-presence of Oneness and multiplicity, and eventually leads to the deconstruction of Oneness and the return to the multiplicity of things. The pursuit of Oneness and the very deconstruction of it constitute the characteristic paradox of the Zhuangzi’s mysticism. Full article

This article examines the concept of ming 命 (mandate/command or fate/destiny) in the Analects, Mencius, and Zhuangzi, exploring its relationship to tian 天 (Heaven). Across these works, ming retains an intrinsic connection to tian—an inviolable cosmic force beyond human control. All three texts exhibit profound reverence and submission to tian, acknowledging the boundary between human control and cosmic inevitability, yet, at the same time, advocating active alignment with tian’s ordained patterns. In the Analects, a central tension emerges between tian’s teleological purpose—centered on preserving human culture and ethical cultivation—and the seemingly arbitrary fluctuations of individual fate, particularly regarding lifespan and personal fulfillment. This tension persists in the Mencius, articulated as a conflict between the political disorder of Mencius’ contemporary era and tian’s normative moral order. The Zhuangzi, by contrast, resolves this tension through advocating for withdrawal from the political life, as well as a radical reinterpretation of tian. Stripping tian off the Confucian moral–cultural imperatives, the text deconstructs dichotomies like life and death, championing inner equanimity via flowing with the cosmic transformation. Full article

The phrase shiri bing chu 十日並出 (ten suns rose in the sky at once) from the Qiwu lun 齊物論 can also be interpreted as shiri dai chu 十日代出 (ten suns alternately appearing). Here, “ten suns rose in the sky at once” is not merely a spatial concept but also a temporal one. Thus, the concept of De 德 (virtue), connected to the idea of “ten suns shining together,” is a transcendent force with its own inner sense of time. It acts as the foundation for all things to exist and grow continuously. Under the endless cycle of day and night and the nourishing power of tiande 天德 (heavenly virtue), everything flourishes according to its true nature. Here, De combines two aspects: mingde 明德 (luminous virtue) and xuande 玄德 (inconspicuous virtue). “luminous virtue” focuses on order and building, highlighting the uniqueness within human growth. “inconspicuous virtue” emphasizes harmony and equalizing with all things, revealing our shared connection with the world. These two concepts are not opposites. The highest goal of luminous virtue lies in mysterious virtue, which itself contains the roots of luminous virtue. Both work together to reflect the natural flow of the Dao 道 (the Way), thus demonstrating that Zhuangzi’s philosophy is not merely about criticism or deconstruction—it has a deeply constructive side. Virtue transcends both individuality and universality. Human nature holds both virtues. By balancing the order of growth and equalizing with all things, we can harmonize our uniqueness with our shared bonds, revealing our true value in both action and spirit. Full article

The development of Daoism in Italy is deeply connected to how its classical texts were received and circulated. Although Italian Christian missionaries were among the earliest Western commentators on Daoism, significant Italian engagement with Daoist works only emerged in the 20th century. During the first half of that century, Italian publishers released six translations of the Laozi, three partial translations of the Zhuangzi, and several general works on Daoism. This surge of interest was influenced by two major 19th-century developments: the rise of sinology as an academic field in France, which spurred European scholarly interest in Chinese culture, and the spread of international esoteric and occult movements, which drew heavily from Eastern philosophies. This paper focuses on two important Italian translations of the Laozi from the interwar period—Julius Evola’s 1923 translation and Attilio Castellani’s 1927 version. These translations exemplify the dual influences of academic sinology and esoteric movements on the Italian reception of Daoism. By comparing these works, this paper highlights how Daoist ideas were introduced and interpreted in Italy, shaped both by the translators’ personal backgrounds and their distinct intellectual aims, thus revealing the varied contexts in which Daoism was received in early 20th-century Italy. Full article

This paper explores the role of forgetting in the thought of the Korean Sŏn (Chan in Chin.; Zen in Jpn. 禪) master Chinul (知訥, 1158–1210), situating it within broader East Asian philosophical and Buddhist discourses. While the concept of forgetting has often been treated negatively in Western philosophy—as a cognitive failure or loss—this study draws on recent comparative scholarship, including Youru Wang’s reading of Zhuangzi, to show how forgetting can be reframed as a conscious spiritual and philosophical practice. In particular, this paper examines how Chinul integrates the practice of forgetting into a systematic Buddhist framework grounded in no-self (anātman), emptiness (śūnyatā), and the unity of samādhi and prajñā. In Straight Talk on the True Mind (Chinsim chiksŏl 眞心直說), Chinul outlines ten distinct methods for cultivating no-mind by offering interpretations of teachings from various East Asian Chan masters. Through a detailed analysis of Chinul’s Chinsim chiksŏl, this paper argues that forgetting—when understood as the deliberate letting go of discursive thought, deluded conceptualizations, and habitual dualisms—becomes a powerful method for revealing the true mind. Ultimately, Chinul’s philosophy of forgetting offers a unique account of cognitive transformation—one that challenges conventional epistemologies and calls for a reorientation of perception itself. Therefore, Chinul’s teachings on no-mind and forgetting offer a profound understanding of how deconstructing ingrained cognitive habits can lead to the emergence of enlightened awareness, providing valuable insights into the transformative processes at the heart of East Asian Sŏn Buddhist practice. Full article