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Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations
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Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2026) | Viewed by 66999

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yuehua Chen

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Guest Editor
School of Philosophy, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
Interests: religious studies; religious philosophy; theories of religion; medieval philosophy; christianity philosophy; augustine; platonism and neoplatonism
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Chuanhui Zeng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institut of World Religions, Chinese Academy of Social Science, Beijing, China
Interests: theories of the scientific study of religion; Daoism; Chinese traditional religions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Zhejia Tang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Marxism, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 310007, China
Interests: the relationship between Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism; philosophy of religion; Daoist philosophy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xuedan Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Marxist Religious Studies in New Area, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: Chinese ancient religions; Chinese philosophy; Chinese Daoism

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Chinese religion has been playing a critical role in shaping China’s civilization development. With a long history and continuous traditions, Chinese religious cultures are dynamic and mainly consist of Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Catholic, Protestantism, Confucian religious thoughts and diverse folk religion. Understanding the historical traditions of Chinese religions will give great insight into the ancient Chinese society and modern times, as well as the enduring cultural communication between the world civilizations. Modern interpretations of Chinese religious cultures are conducive to understanding the characteristics and features of Chinese civilization and the role religion has played in Chinese society and people’s daily life. We are pleased to invite global scholars to contribute an academic article related to religious cultures in China (particularly on the religions mentioned above), including their history, tradition and development, from multiple disciplinary aspects of modern academic interpretations. We hope that this Special Issue will contribute to a better understanding of the characteristics of Chinese religions and Chinese cultural tradition.

For this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Interpreting Chinese religious cultures and scriptural texts with modern theories of religious studies;
  • Exploring the modern value and significance of Chinese traditional religious cultures in China;
  • Comparative studies on Chinese religious cultures with the perspective of modern communication and mutual learning among civilizations;
  • The influence of important Chinese religious rituals, practices, figures, conceptions, theories, thoughts, events and places on the modern Chinese society;
  • The international spread of Chinese religious cultures and its modern value to the global civilization.

We request that, prior to submitting a manuscript, the interested authors initially submit a proposed title and an abstract of 200–300 words summarizing their intended contribution. Please send it to the Guest Editor or the Assistant Editor of Religions. Abstracts will be reviewed by the Guest Editors for the purpose of ensuring proper fit within the scope of the Special Issue. Full manuscripts will undergo a double-blind peer review.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Reference

Brashier, K.E. 2015. The Modern Endeavor to Interpret Early Chinese Religions, Oxford Handbook Topics in Religion (online edn, Oxford Academic, 3 Feb. 2014), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935420.013.34, Accessed 30 Apr. 2024.

Zhuo, Xinping. 2015. The Direction of Modern Chinese Religion, On China’s Cultural Transformation, Issues in Contemporary Chinese Thought and Culture. Edited by Arif Dirlik and Keping Yu. Leiden: Brill, Vol(5), p.228-240.

Yang, C. K. 1970. Religion in Chinese society: A study of contemporary social functions of religion and some of their historical factors. Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press.

Wong, W. Y. 2011. Defining Chinese Folk Religion: A Methodological Interpretation. Asian Philosophy, 21(2), 153–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2011.563993

Rosker, J. S. 2017. Is Confucianism a religion? Modern Confucian theories on the ethical nature of classical discourses. Asian Philosophy, 27(4), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2017.1388552

Cao, Nanlai. 2019. A Sinicized World Religion?: Chinese Christianity at the Contemporary Moment of Globalization Religions 10, no. 8: 459. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10080459

Frankel, James D. 2016. Chinese–Islamic Connections: An Historical and Contemporary Overview. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 36(4): 569–83. doi:10.1080/13602004.2016.1248175.

Weber, Max. 1968. The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism, Translated and Edited by Hans H. Gerth, New York: Free Press.

Mou, Zhongjian, 2018, A Brief History of the Relationship among Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, 儒道佛三教關係簡明通史, Beijing: Renmin Press.

Kengo, Araki. 1975. Confucianism and Buddhism in the late Ming. The unfolding of Neo-Confucianism. Edited by William Theodore De Bary, New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 39--66.

Prof. Dr. Yuehua Chen
Prof. Dr. Chuanhui Zeng
Dr. Zhejia Tang
Dr. Xuedan Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • modern interpretations
  • Chinese religious cultures
  • Buddhist culture
  • Daoist culture
  • Islamic culture
  • Christian culture
  • Chinese folk religion
  • Confucian religious thoughts

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Published Papers (34 papers)

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27 pages, 5046 KB  
Article
Folk Beliefs in Hell as a Response to “Legal Pluralism”: Qing Dynasty Material Yuli as “Underworld Legal Codes”
by Ruofei Zhou
Religions 2026, 17(4), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040414 - 25 Mar 2026
Viewed by 491
Abstract
During the mid-to-late Qing Dynasty, the folk-belief text Yuli constructed a systematic “underworld legal code” via its image–text system, distinct from traditional religious karma and religious law. This study focuses on Yuli’s core image system, exploring its unique legal characteristics and social [...] Read more.
During the mid-to-late Qing Dynasty, the folk-belief text Yuli constructed a systematic “underworld legal code” via its image–text system, distinct from traditional religious karma and religious law. This study focuses on Yuli’s core image system, exploring its unique legal characteristics and social governance functions through an interdisciplinary approach integrating religious studies, art history, and legal history. Yuli transforms real judicial symbols, such as government offices and prison gates, into underworld visual elements, establishing the core legal principles of “correspondence between crime and punishment” and “universal equality” while reflecting contemporary legal thought. The formation of this “underworld legal code” is closely linked to the creative practices of Qing Confucian scholars, who utilized folk beliefs as a vehicle to disseminate secular legal concepts and respond to social demands for behavioral norms. The Yuli thus became the primary behavioral norm for its grassroots audience, who, due to low literacy, could not understand the formal laws of the Qing Dynasty, and guided them to refrain from criminal acts. Yuli’s “underworld legal code” not only supplemented the national legal system but also reflected the pluralistic pattern of social governance in late imperial China, providing crucial empirical support for the theory of legal pluralism. This study deepens the understanding of the interactive relationship between folk beliefs and legal order in traditional China, and further clarifies the unique mode of grassroots social governance in the Qing Dynasty. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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24 pages, 462 KB  
Article
The Characteristics of T. C. Chao’s Poeticizing Theology
by Zhimei Wu and Tao Xu
Religions 2026, 17(4), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040407 - 24 Mar 2026
Viewed by 347
Abstract
This paper focuses on T. C. Chao’s (Zhao Zichen, 赵紫宸, 1888–1979) poeticizing theology practice, in which he applied poetry to expound and express theological thought. By employing research methodology that integrates historical and logical analysis, this study examines the historical context and the [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on T. C. Chao’s (Zhao Zichen, 赵紫宸, 1888–1979) poeticizing theology practice, in which he applied poetry to expound and express theological thought. By employing research methodology that integrates historical and logical analysis, this study examines the historical context and the author’s personal theological mission, so as to investigate the formation of his poeticizing theology. This paper analyzes T. C. Chao’s poetry from multiple aspects, including the form, the expression, the core of his thoughts and the poetry’s peculiarities. We found that T. C. Chao’s poeticizing theology shows cultural fusion and a mystic inclination at the textual level, reflecting peculiarities in contextualization, ethics and indigenization at the theological level. These characteristics of T. C. Chao’s poeticizing theolog provide great significance in offering spiritual comfort, advancing indigenous theology, and responding to contemporary intellectual trends. Furthermore, it remains instructive for current practices of cross-cultural fusion that take Chinese culture as the main subject, and emphasize the fusion of inner spirituality and creative transformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
40 pages, 687 KB  
Article
“Punishing Evil” and “Supplementing Confucianism”: The Intellectual Interaction Between the Jesuits and Wang Yangming’s School in the Late Ming Period
by Wenping Li and Jing Jing
Religions 2026, 17(3), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17030387 - 19 Mar 2026
Viewed by 425
Abstract
The intellectual exchanges between late-Ming Jesuits and Chinese literati have long been interpreted primarily as a process of cultural accommodation aimed at “harmonizing with Confucianism” (合儒), and scholarship has tended to focus on missionary strategies, social networks, or individual conversion histories. By contrast, [...] Read more.
The intellectual exchanges between late-Ming Jesuits and Chinese literati have long been interpreted primarily as a process of cultural accommodation aimed at “harmonizing with Confucianism” (合儒), and scholarship has tended to focus on missionary strategies, social networks, or individual conversion histories. By contrast, the question of how resources within Confucian thought made ethical dialogue with Catholicism possible—especially why the practical-learning strand (實學派) of Wang Yangming’s School (陽明學) exhibited such pronounced receptivity to Catholic ideas among late-Ming literati—remains insufficiently theorized at the level of conceptual structure. This study, therefore, shifts the analytical focus from “historical narratives of converts” to an explanation of the mechanisms that enabled Sino-Jesuit dialogue. It argues that Augustine and Wang Yangming display a notable convergence in their conceptions of good and evil (善惡論), and that this convergence created an intellectual space for engagement between Jesuits and later Yangming scholars. The Jesuits’ deliberate promotion of doctrines concerning the punishment of evil (懲惡) further facilitated the practical-learning Yangmingists’ reception of Catholic resources regarding ultimate judgment and retributive justice, especially as they confronted the problem of inadequate means to restrain or punish wrongdoing. This article situates late-Ming Sino-Western intellectual exchange within an analytical framework of “theories of good and evil—mechanisms for punishing evil—pathways for supplementing Confucianism (補儒),” thereby offering a mechanism-based explanation, grounded in theories of good and evil, for the historical interaction between Chinese Confucian thought and the ethical systems of incoming religions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
16 pages, 6441 KB  
Article
A Newly Identified Western Wei Medicine Buddha on the East Wall of Mogao Cave 285
by Ye Xiong
Religions 2026, 17(3), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17030334 - 6 Mar 2026
Viewed by 328
Abstract
No depiction of the Medicine Buddha has been identified in the Mogao Grottoes prior to the Sui Dynasty. Through a re-examination of the sculptural program and the ink inscriptions in Mogao Cave 285, this study demonstrates that the preaching scene on the south [...] Read more.
No depiction of the Medicine Buddha has been identified in the Mogao Grottoes prior to the Sui Dynasty. Through a re-examination of the sculptural program and the ink inscriptions in Mogao Cave 285, this study demonstrates that the preaching scene on the south side of the east wall, whose principal figure bears the inscription “Amitāyus Buddha”, exhibits a closer textual and iconographic correspondence with the Guanding jing than with the Pure Land texts proposed in prior research. Based on textual, iconographic, and spatial evidence, this study argues that the preaching scene on the north side, corresponding to the south scene, also derives from the Guanding jing, with the principal figure identified as the “Medicine Buddha of Lapis Lazuli Crystal Radiance”. This new discovery establishes that the east wall of Mogao Cave 285 contains the earliest depiction of the Medicine Buddha at the Mogao Grottoes, dating to the Western Wei Dynasty. This study substantially revises the established chronology of the Medicine Buddha cult in the Dunhuang region and calls for a reassessment of the textual foundations underpinning the artistic program of Mogao Cave 285. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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19 pages, 474 KB  
Article
Can Ordinary Beings Attain Rebirth in Amitābha’s Pure Land? Huai’gan and the Formation of an Inclusive Pure Land Vision in Early Tang China
by Shengtao Deng
Religions 2026, 17(3), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17030331 - 5 Mar 2026
Viewed by 416
Abstract
Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the question of whether ordinary beings (fanfu 凡夫) could attain rebirth in Amitābha’s Pure Land became a central concern in Chinese Buddhism. In the Chen and Sui periods, exegetes of the She lun 攝論 and some [...] Read more.
Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the question of whether ordinary beings (fanfu 凡夫) could attain rebirth in Amitābha’s Pure Land became a central concern in Chinese Buddhism. In the Chen and Sui periods, exegetes of the She lun 攝論 and some Di lun 地論 masters generally denied this possibility. By the seventh century, however, Master Huai’gan 懷感, building on the teachings of Shandao 善導, systematically addressed these doubts in his Treatise on Resolving Doubts about the Pure Land (Shi jingtu qunyi lun 釋淨土群疑論). He refuted the Yogācāra (Weishi zong 唯識宗) claim that only bodhisattvas can be reborn there, insisting that all beings, though differing in spiritual capacities, are able to attain rebirth in Pure Land. Against the Three Stages teaching (Sanjie jiao 三階教), which regarded beings of the degenerate age as wholly evil and unfit for Pure Land practice. Huai’gan stressed the role of bodhicitta and argued that Buddha recitation eradicates karmic obstacles, enabling even perpetrators of the Ten Evils or slanderers of the Dharma to be reborn. Reconciling discrepancies between the Sūtra of Infinite Life and the Contemplation Sūtra on the issue of the five grave offenses, he highlighted the criterion of ten invocations as sufficient for rebirth. Huai’gan effectively universalized the Pure Land path by reconciling the Yogācāra-based theory of the Transformtion Land with the orthodox Pure Land view of the Reward Land (baotu 報土) as a literal reality generated by Amitābha Buddha’s Vow-power. In doing so, Huai’gan shifted pre-Tang restrictive views toward a more inclusive Pure Land vision, paving the way for the open orientation of early Tang Pure Land thought. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
22 pages, 372 KB  
Article
Ontological Culture and the Divergent Trajectories of Christianity in Modern East Asia: A Comparative Historical Analysis of China and Korea
by Fang Du and Zhen Sun
Religions 2026, 17(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020269 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 586
Abstract
This article offers a comparative historical analysis of the transmission of Christianity in China and Korea from the nineteenth century to the formation of modern nation-states. Although the two societies were incorporated into the global order under broadly similar conditions of Western imperial [...] Read more.
This article offers a comparative historical analysis of the transmission of Christianity in China and Korea from the nineteenth century to the formation of modern nation-states. Although the two societies were incorporated into the global order under broadly similar conditions of Western imperial expansion and modernization, Christianity followed markedly different trajectories in each context. This study examines how Christianity interacted with dominant ideological traditions in China and Korea and how these interactions shaped distinct patterns of religious localization. To explain these divergent outcomes, the article introduces the analytical concepts of ontological culture and cultural inertia and employs them as a culturally grounded framework for comparison. It argues that differences in the sources of normative legitimacy and the strength of cultural inertia played a decisive role in conditioning whether Christianity remained marginal or became socially embedded. While Christianity in China was largely contained and selectively absorbed within a resilient indigenous ontological culture, its development in Korea was facilitated by a weakening cultural order that allowed Christianity to function as an alternative source of moral authority. By foregrounding cultural structure as a mediating mechanism in religious transmission, this study moves beyond institution-centered or missionary-centered explanations and contributes a comparative East Asian perspective to broader debates on religious diffusion, localization, and globalization. It also highlights the value of non-Western historical experiences for developing more generalizable theories of religious change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
16 pages, 386 KB  
Article
Bidirectional Transcendence in Confucianism: An Analysis Centered on the Concept of Jing
by Yongyong Sun and Zhenyu Zeng
Religions 2026, 17(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020244 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 484
Abstract
This paper proposes a comparative model of “bidirectional transcendence” in Confucian thought by reading the concept of jing (敬) against two kinds of human finitude: “no-more” of being and “not-yet” of being. Drawing on philological analysis of classical lexemes, close readings of Song–Ming [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a comparative model of “bidirectional transcendence” in Confucian thought by reading the concept of jing (敬) against two kinds of human finitude: “no-more” of being and “not-yet” of being. Drawing on philological analysis of classical lexemes, close readings of Song–Ming Neo-Confucian texts, and a comparison with Western accounts of religious and philosophical transcendence, I show that jing generates two complementary responses. The first is an outward, historicizing form of transcendence—embodied in “revering Heaven and following ancestors” (jingtian fazu 敬天法祖)—which secures communal meaning and a this-worldly continuity of ethical life in the face of the “no-more.” The second is an inward, realm-oriented transcendence—articulated in “being serious in order to straighten one’s inner life” (jing yi zhi nei 敬以直內)—realized through self-cultivation (gongfu 工夫) and the integration of mind and the principle of Heaven, and oriented toward the “not-yet.” This bidirectional framework reconciles readings that cast Confucianism as either purely ethical or essentially religious, clarifies recurring comparative and translational pitfalls, and offers a concise, textually grounded basis for Sino–Western dialogue about varieties of transcendence and ultimate concern. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
22 pages, 1684 KB  
Article
The Symmetrical, Integrated, and Pre-Sexual Body Concept: From the Vitality Narrative in Daoist Female Alchemy
by Yuerong Xin and Tao Xu
Religions 2026, 17(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020154 - 29 Jan 2026
Viewed by 737
Abstract
Daoist female alchemy (nüdan 女丹) texts articulate a bodily paradigm in which humans and nature mutually enfold one another, and in which yin and yang interact in harmonious complementarity. Through an analysis of three key dimensions, the yin-yang cosmology embedded in these [...] Read more.
Daoist female alchemy (nüdan 女丹) texts articulate a bodily paradigm in which humans and nature mutually enfold one another, and in which yin and yang interact in harmonious complementarity. Through an analysis of three key dimensions, the yin-yang cosmology embedded in these texts, the ways menstruation, desire, and the female breasts are reconceived in the course of cultivation, and the ideal of gestating an a priori (xiantian 先天) embryo, this article argues that nüdan writings present a gender-symmetrical, pre-sexual symbolic culture. This culture both acknowledges gender difference and ultimately transcends it, seeking a return to the undifferentiated, yin-yang combined condition of primordial Dao. These texts reveal that women and men possess complementary yin and yang attributes that must be reintegrated in order to return to the a priori state and attain infinite vitality. They likewise suggest that both women and men harbor active, originary desire, and that only through equivalent processes of bodily transformation, reverting the sexualized, adult bodies into the unsexualized bodies of the girl and boy, can practitioners acquire the power to gestate the inner elixir, symbolizing inexhaustible vitality. In this sense, nüdan writings develop a pre-sexual narrative centered on vitality, offering a resonant response to concerns within postmodern feminism regarding how to dismantle centralized, phallogocentric narratives while enriching non-gender-centralized symbolic cultures. They thus provide a special path to reconsider gender not by advancing forward, but by stepping back into a more primordial, integrated ideal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
16 pages, 351 KB  
Article
The Mandate of Heaven: One of the Fundamental Beliefs in Confucian China
by Jun Zhang
Religions 2026, 17(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020150 - 28 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1317
Abstract
The mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命) is one of the fundamental beliefs of ancient China. Its origin can be traced back to at least the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought, it was developed into [...] Read more.
The mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命) is one of the fundamental beliefs of ancient China. Its origin can be traced back to at least the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought, it was developed into a philosophical concept by Confucianism. Nevertheless, its religiosity was still inherited and developed by Confucianism, particularly the form of Confucianism that served as the state religion since the Han Dynasty. Hence, these two distinct yet intertwined Confucian perspectives on tianming coexist harmoniously. This symbiotic relationship serves a dual purpose: it nurtures the humanistic spirit and belief among the intellectual elite while simultaneously offering a universal religious belief accessible to the common people. The underlying essence that enables Confucianism to accommodate these two disparate spiritual temperaments lies in its core tenets of unremitting self-improvement and profound humanistic concern. The Confucian concepts of tianming and related religious ideas inherently encapsulate a humanistic spirit that resonates with the ethos of modern society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
24 pages, 3992 KB  
Article
The Wooded Mountains, Ancestral Spirits and Community: Yi Religious Ecology in the “ꑭꁮ” (xiō bū) Ritual
by Hao Zhang and Hua Cai
Religions 2026, 17(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020143 - 27 Jan 2026
Viewed by 620
Abstract
Based on extensive ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Mianning County, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture between 2023 and 2024, this paper analyzes the “xiō bū” (ꑭꁮ) ritual of the Liangshan Yi people. Framed within contemporary approaches to religious anthropology and social memory theory, the study [...] Read more.
Based on extensive ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Mianning County, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture between 2023 and 2024, this paper analyzes the “xiō bū” (ꑭꁮ) ritual of the Liangshan Yi people. Framed within contemporary approaches to religious anthropology and social memory theory, the study explores how this ritual constructs Yi ecological ethics, social integration, and cultural identity through nature worship, ancestral spirit beliefs, and ritual practices. The ethnographic evidence reveals that the “xiō bū” ritual, by designating wooded mountains as sacred space and performing sacrifices to nature deities and ancestral spirits, integrates “humans—nature—ancestors” into a symbiotic system of the “community of life.” This reflects the Yi people’s relational ontology and embedded ecological knowledge. The sacrificial offerings, shared meals, and purification practices in the ritual not only reinforce reverence for nature through symbolic acts but also unify the community through Durkheimian “collective effervescence,” thereby restoring the community’s spiritual order. As a carrier of social memory, the “xiō bū” ritual, through epic chanting, symbolic performances (such as clothing, ritual implements), and bodily practices (like the ritual specialist’s movements), embeds individual memories into the collective historical narrative of the group, dynamically constructing the cultural boundaries of the “Yi” people. The ritual specialists (Bimo or Suni), as intermediaries of knowledge and power, maintain religious authority through bricolage-like symbolic reorganization and foster the creative transformation of tradition in response to the challenges of modernity. The study further reveals that while the ritual faces challenges in the contemporary context, such as secularization and population mobility, it continues to activate ethnic identity by simplifying rituals, preserving core symbols, and coupling with ecological discourses, offering a model for the modern adaptation of traditional religions. This paper argues that ritual studies should engage with contemporary theoretical approaches like the ontological turn, focus on the agency of individuals, and reflect on the insights traditional knowledge systems offer in the face of globalization and ecological crises. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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14 pages, 347 KB  
Article
Daoist Unique Pursuit of Tianren Heyi
by Paulos Huang and Chenqing Zhao
Religions 2026, 17(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17010109 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 733
Abstract
This paper critically examines Lu Guolong’s interpretation of tianren heyi, arguing that his portrayal of it as an inherent virtue of Chinese culture—and his positioning of Daoism between Confucianism and Buddhism—remains conceptually inadequate. Through a textual analysis of oracle-bone inscriptions, the Shangshu [...] Read more.
This paper critically examines Lu Guolong’s interpretation of tianren heyi, arguing that his portrayal of it as an inherent virtue of Chinese culture—and his positioning of Daoism between Confucianism and Buddhism—remains conceptually inadequate. Through a textual analysis of oracle-bone inscriptions, the Shangshu, and the Guoyu, the study reconstructs the notions of shenmin bu za and the four historical “transgressions”, thereby demonstrating that tianren heyi is not a singular, unchanging tradition but a historically generated and internally diverse phenomenon. By distinguishing between the Confucian model of you ren zhi tian, the Daoist model of you tian zhi ren or you ziran zhi ren, and the Daoist practice of yi ren zhi tian, this paper highlights the Daoist distinctive emphasis on the embodied dimension—pursuing tianren heyi through corporeal cultivation and the twin disciplines of waidan and neidan. The modern trend of celebrating tianren heyi as an emblem of Chinese cultural excellence calls for cautious reinterpretation—one that carefully distinguishes its ontological meaning from its practical and historical articulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
12 pages, 286 KB  
Article
The Jesuit Longobardo’s Interpretation of the Neo-Confucian Concepts of li and qi
by Yijing Zhang and Thierry Meynard
Religions 2025, 16(12), 1559; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121559 - 11 Dec 2025
Viewed by 676
Abstract
This article addresses the most important translation issue in the first philosophic and religious dialogue between Europe and China: is there a Chinese equivalent for the Christian concept of God? We approach the question from the perspective of comparative philosophy. We start by [...] Read more.
This article addresses the most important translation issue in the first philosophic and religious dialogue between Europe and China: is there a Chinese equivalent for the Christian concept of God? We approach the question from the perspective of comparative philosophy. We start by examining the historical and theoretical context in which the Jesuit Niccolò Longobardo developed his disagreement with Matteo Ricci regarding the question as to whether the Confucianism is an atheism. We then analyse the interpretation that equates li and qi, respectively, with the Aristotelian notions of accident and prime matter. After showing how Longobardo reduces neo-Confucianism to Presocratic atheism in an Aristotelian manner, we propose an alternative perspective that can reconcile Christianism and neo-Confucianism with regard to the concept of first cause. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
20 pages, 1832 KB  
Article
The Evolution of the “Three Dots of the Character Yi” in Mahāyāna Buddhism: With a Focus on Fang Yizhi’s “Perfect ∴” Theory
by Yu Liu and Christoph Anderl
Religions 2025, 16(12), 1544; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121544 - 8 Dec 2025
Viewed by 983
Abstract
Fang Yizhi was a prominent Confucian Buddhist philosopher of the late Ming Dynasty, whose thought centered on the theory of “Perfect ∴.” This paper traces the evolution of the meaning of the “three dots of the character Yi” in texts of the Tiantai, [...] Read more.
Fang Yizhi was a prominent Confucian Buddhist philosopher of the late Ming Dynasty, whose thought centered on the theory of “Perfect ∴.” This paper traces the evolution of the meaning of the “three dots of the character Yi” in texts of the Tiantai, Huayan, and Chan schools of Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism. Building on this foundation, and by integrating the specific texts and ideas of Fang Yizhi, this paper analyzes how his theory of the Perfect ∴ synthesizes the philosophy of the Zhouyi, reformulates the conceptual content of the Buddhist symbol ∴, and thereby offers a new potential pathway for understanding the intellectual trend of the synthesis of the Three Teachings in the late Ming Dynasty. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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21 pages, 1125 KB  
Article
From an Unconventional Monk to an Arhat: The Significance of Dao Ji’s Image Evolution in the Context of Buddhism
by Tingting Wang and Shanmeng He
Religions 2025, 16(12), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121509 - 28 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1133
Abstract
This paper focuses on the image evolution of Shi Daoji (Ji Gong), a monk of the Southern Song Dynasty, and explores its important significance in the history of Chinese Buddhism. The historical authenticity of Dao Ji was once questioned, but the Epitaph written [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on the image evolution of Shi Daoji (Ji Gong), a monk of the Southern Song Dynasty, and explores its important significance in the history of Chinese Buddhism. The historical authenticity of Dao Ji was once questioned, but the Epitaph written by Jujian, provides key evidence for his existence. It records Dao Ji’s origin, ordination, personality, and behavioral characteristics, establishing the prototype for later Ji Gong legends. Initially, Dao Ji existed as an “unconventional monk” with eccentric behaviors yet possessing spiritual legitimacy. During the Song-Yuan period, huaben (vernacular tales) and recorded sayings shaped him into a “San Sheng” (Uninhibited Sage), which conformed to the characteristics of Buddhism’s sinicization and gained widespread acceptance among the people. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Dao Ji was further recognized as an “Arhat Yingzhen” (a realized Arhat), and his Chan lineage was gradually clarified in lamp records, with his status continuously elevated. The evolution of Dao Ji’s image reflects the process of Buddhism’s secularization and sinicization. It not only embodies the influence of folk beliefs on orthodox Buddhism but also reveals that Buddhism needs to integrate into people’s lives to complete its localization, providing a unique perspective for understanding the development of Chinese Buddhism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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19 pages, 375 KB  
Article
Towards the Body of Androgyny: A Feminist Perspective on Daoist Philosophy of Yinyang and Cultivational Practices
by Lili Zhang and Peiwei Wang
Religions 2025, 16(12), 1493; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121493 - 25 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1130
Abstract
This paper re-examines Daoist philosophy and practice through a feminist lens, arguing that Daoist cosmology articulates a dynamic ontology of gender grounded in cixiongtongti (雌雄同體, “the body of androgyny”). Drawing on classical and religious texts—including the Daodejing, Zhuangzi, Taishang Laojun Zhongjing [...] Read more.
This paper re-examines Daoist philosophy and practice through a feminist lens, arguing that Daoist cosmology articulates a dynamic ontology of gender grounded in cixiongtongti (雌雄同體, “the body of androgyny”). Drawing on classical and religious texts—including the Daodejing, Zhuangzi, Taishang Laojun Zhongjing, Santian Neijie Jing, and later alchemical writings—it demonstrates how Daoism envisions embodiment as a site of coexistence where masculine and feminine forces mutually generate and transform. Rather than privileging “feminine” values or reversing patriarchal hierarchies, Daoist yinyang metaphysics dissolves the binary itself, redefining equality as interdependence within difference. The study situates Daoism in dialogue with feminist and ecofeminist theories, acknowledging shared anti-dualist impulses while highlighting Daoism’s distinct cosmological grounding in the circulation of qi. Through analysis of textual metaphors and inner-alchemical practices such as male pregnancy and female transformation, the paper shows that Daoist cultivation performatively realizes male-female-co-existence (nannü gongsheng 男女共生) as both a philosophical and embodied principle. In doing so, it reveals Daoist thought as a vital resource for reimagining embodiment beyond essentialism—offering a non-hierarchical, pluralistic model of gender that integrates cosmology, corporeality, and spiritual practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
20 pages, 13169 KB  
Article
Research on the Characteristics and Colours of Chinese Islamic Architecture: A Case Study of Fenghuang Temple in Hangzhou
by Rong Wang, Cheng Lin and Tao Lv
Religions 2025, 16(12), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121484 - 24 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1126
Abstract
This study takes the Phoenix Mosque (fenghuangsi 凤凰寺) in Hangzhou as a representative case to explore the localization patterns and profound cultural connotations of colour application in Chinese Islamic architecture. The findings reveal that the architectural colour scheme of the Phoenix Mosque not [...] Read more.
This study takes the Phoenix Mosque (fenghuangsi 凤凰寺) in Hangzhou as a representative case to explore the localization patterns and profound cultural connotations of colour application in Chinese Islamic architecture. The findings reveal that the architectural colour scheme of the Phoenix Mosque not only skillfully integrates traditional Islamic symbolism with Chinese cultural aesthetics but also emphasises simplicity and purity in its overall design, vividly reflecting the unique Jiangnan (Lower Yangtze) regional aesthetic distinct from other styles of Chinese Islamic architecture. This distinctive chromatic system carries significant implications for cultural heritage preservation, artistic aesthetics, and tourism development. However, it also faces multiple challenges, including insufficient preservation techniques, risks of cultural misinterpretation, and a shortage of specialised professionals. In response, this study systematically proposes a set of comprehensive strategies that combine scientific conservation and technological innovation, deepen cultural education and communication, and strengthen talent cultivation and academic research. The aim is to provide robust theoretical foundations and practical pathways for the preservation, inheritance, and innovative development of colour traditions in Chinese Islamic architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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9 pages, 302 KB  
Article
Xu Zongze’s Translation Theories and Practices in the Jesuit Revue Catholique
by Wei Mo
Religions 2025, 16(11), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111392 - 31 Oct 2025
Viewed by 658
Abstract
This paper examines the translation theories and practices of Xu Zongze 徐宗澤 (1886–1947), a key figure in the Jesuit community of the Zi-ka-wei compound 徐家匯. Descending from the prominent Catholic Xu family and serving as chief editor of the Revue Catholique 聖教雜誌, Xu [...] Read more.
This paper examines the translation theories and practices of Xu Zongze 徐宗澤 (1886–1947), a key figure in the Jesuit community of the Zi-ka-wei compound 徐家匯. Descending from the prominent Catholic Xu family and serving as chief editor of the Revue Catholique 聖教雜誌, Xu was uniquely positioned to engage in religious and cultural dialogues. By situating Xu within modern China’s translation history, this paper highlights his significant contributions to translation scholarship, especially in merging Western religious thought with Chinese traditions. Xu utilized the “Discussion” column of the Revue for his “Treatise on Translation” 譯書論, celebrating Jesuit translation accomplishments and examining historical policies. His works advocate for using the Jesuit legacy in contemporary translation debates to enhance cultural understanding. Xu’s efforts, including the Synopsis of Jesuit Translations during the Ming and Qing Dynasties 明清間耶穌會士譯著提要 and the “New Terms” series, resist linguistic dominance while facilitating intercultural understanding. Through his translation experience and Jesuit cultural initiatives, Xu Zongze advocated for the establishment of a Catholic translation institute aimed at developing talent and enhancing communication with Catholic publishers. By centering on Xu, this study reexamines the role of Zi-ka-wei within the context of modern Chinese translation history, evaluating how its engagement with Western knowledge effectively addressed the intellectual demands of the era, which called for contemporary interpretations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
20 pages, 7586 KB  
Article
“Sirens” in the East: Human-Headed Birds on Han Pictorial Stones and Their Transregional Connections
by Yu Sun
Religions 2025, 16(11), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111335 - 22 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1880
Abstract
Human-headed birds, a recurrent yet understudied motif on Han dynasty pictorial stones, are examined in this study with a focus on their mythical representations. Placed within visualisation of the world of the Queen Mother of the West, a belief popular in the Han [...] Read more.
Human-headed birds, a recurrent yet understudied motif on Han dynasty pictorial stones, are examined in this study with a focus on their mythical representations. Placed within visualisation of the world of the Queen Mother of the West, a belief popular in the Han Dynasty, these figures are argued to depict the Blue Birds (Qingniao) of Han mythology. Moreover, a distinct variation in the Shandong region shows a human-headed bird offering Jiahe, an auspicious plant, symbolising immortality and well-being in tomb art. Through a chaîne opératoire analysis, the paper traces their creation as a composite form, integrating familiar Han bird imagery—particularly owls—with Greco-Roman Siren elements transmitted along the Silk Road. The regional clustering of such depictions in zones of early cross-cultural contact underscores the role of external influences in shaping Han visual traditions. This study highlights how mythological beings were adapted amid shifting religious ideas and transregional interactions in early imperial China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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16 pages, 326 KB  
Article
A Study of Korean Christianity from the Perspective of Chinese Religious Studies: Historical Evolution, Contributions, and Future Prospects
by Yong Qian and Yuehua Chen
Religions 2025, 16(10), 1287; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101287 - 10 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1290
Abstract
Adopting the theoretical traditions and methodological approaches of Chinese religious studies, this paper systematically reviews the scholarly development, theoretical contributions, and methodological characteristics of research on Korean Christianity conducted by Chinese scholars. Through an in-depth analysis of the academic literature spanning the past [...] Read more.
Adopting the theoretical traditions and methodological approaches of Chinese religious studies, this paper systematically reviews the scholarly development, theoretical contributions, and methodological characteristics of research on Korean Christianity conducted by Chinese scholars. Through an in-depth analysis of the academic literature spanning the past five decades, the study unveils the developmental logic, theoretical innovations, and prospective research directions within this field. It finds that Chinese scholarship has progressed through distinct phases—from preliminary exploration to diversified inquiry—marked by an increasingly expansive academic vision. Core findings include: in-depth interpretations of mechanisms underlying the indigenization of foreign religions, nuanced examinations of the complex interplay between religion and socio-cultural dynamics, and the construction of theoretical models for cross-cultural religious transmission. The study also highlights current methodological limitations and proposes future research strategies such as interdisciplinary integration, empirical approaches, and theoretical innovation. These efforts aim to offer fresh perspectives for the study of religious history in East Asia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
19 pages, 475 KB  
Article
Worship of Tian, Transgressive Rites, and Judged Ghosts: The Religious Transformation of Hamlet in Peking Opera
by Jia Xu and Huping Qian
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081022 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1904
Abstract
Peking opera The Revenge of Prince Zi Dan reinterprets Shakespeare’s Hamlet by integrating supernatural elements and traditional rituals from Chinese folk religion. The religious transformation is revealed through the reworking of lines, incorporation of ritual traditions, and portrayal of supernatural figures. The divine [...] Read more.
Peking opera The Revenge of Prince Zi Dan reinterprets Shakespeare’s Hamlet by integrating supernatural elements and traditional rituals from Chinese folk religion. The religious transformation is revealed through the reworking of lines, incorporation of ritual traditions, and portrayal of supernatural figures. The divine entity that is invoked in Hamlet’s prayers (2.2.169, 5.2.316) and Claudius’s repentance (3.3.36–72) is translated as tian 天 (Heaven) in Revenge, thus introducing the concepts of the worship of tian and tianming 天命 (Mandate of Heaven). Revenge also adapts Claudius’s command of “give me some light” (3.2.261) by associating it with ancient exorcisms, thereby dramatizing his attempts to conceal the guilt for regicide. Ophelia’s “maimed rites” (5.1.208) are depicted as a deviation from Confucian funeral rites in Revenge, reflected in the simplified funeral banners and Hamlet’s transgressive mourning. The “sulphurous and tormenting flames” (1.5.3) and the morning cock’s crow (1.2.217) are reinterpreted through the introduction of the judicial system of the underworld. These changes are not merely transitions in performing conventions but reflect the deep connection between folk religion and traditional Chinese theater through these prayers, rituals, and supernatural elements, thus creating a specific theatrical “field” in which Chinese folk religion interacts with Western classics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
18 pages, 392 KB  
Article
Semantic Restoration of Snake-Slaying in Chan Buddhist Koan
by Yun Wang and Yulu Lv
Religions 2025, 16(8), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16080973 - 27 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1579
Abstract
In the Chan Buddhism koan (gong’an 公案) tradition, the act of “slaying the snake” functions as a signature gesture imbued with complex, historically layered cultural meanings. Rather than merely examining its motivations, this paper emphasizes tracing the semantic transformations that this motif has [...] Read more.
In the Chan Buddhism koan (gong’an 公案) tradition, the act of “slaying the snake” functions as a signature gesture imbued with complex, historically layered cultural meanings. Rather than merely examining its motivations, this paper emphasizes tracing the semantic transformations that this motif has undergone across different historical contexts. It argues that “snake-slaying” operated variously as an imperial narrative strategy reinforcing ruling class ideology; as a form of popular resistance by commoners against flood-related disasters; as a dietary practice among aristocrats and literati seeking danyao (elixirs) 丹藥 for reclusion and transcendence; and ultimately, within the Chan tradition, as a method of spiritual cultivation whereby masters sever desires rooted in attachment to both selfhood and the Dharma. More specifically, first, as an imperial narrative logic, snake-slaying embodied exemplary power: both Liu Bang 劉邦 and Guizong 歸宗 enacted this discursive strategy, with Guizong’s legitimacy in slaying the snake deriving from the precedent set by Liu Bang. Second, as a folk strategy of demystification, snake-slaying acquired a moral aura—since the snake was perceived as malevolent force, their slaying appeared righteous and heroic. Finally, as a mode of self-cultivation among the aristocracy, snake-slaying laid the groundwork for its later internalization. In Daoism, slaying the snake was a means of cultivating the body; in Chan Buddhism, the act is elevated to a higher plane—becoming a way of cultivating the mind. This transformation unfolded naturally, as if predestined. In all cases, the internalization of the snake-slaying motif was not an overnight development: the cultural genes that preceded its appearance in the Chan tradition provided the fertile ground for its karmic maturation and discursive proliferation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
27 pages, 570 KB  
Article
The Sacred Impermanence: Religious Anxiety and “Capital Relocation” (遷都) in Early China
by Di Wang
Religions 2025, 16(6), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060785 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 2929
Abstract
Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of early China, particularly through the practice of relocating capitals (遷都). The relocation of capitals is an outstanding theme in early Chinese historiography, setting it apart from many other world traditions. [...] Read more.
Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of early China, particularly through the practice of relocating capitals (遷都). The relocation of capitals is an outstanding theme in early Chinese historiography, setting it apart from many other world traditions. In particular, this practice contrasts sharply with the early Mediterranean context, where the city of Rome transitioned from a modest city-state to a world empire and was celebrated as the “eternal city.” By contrast, early Chinese capitals were deliberately transient, their impermanence rooted in strong religious sentiments and pragmatic considerations. Religious and ideological justifications were central to these relocations. The relocation was not merely a logistical or political exercise; it was imbued with symbolic meaning that reinforced the ruler’s legitimacy and divine mandate. Equally important was the way rulers communicated these decisions to the populace. The ability to garner mass support for such monumental undertakings reveals the intricate relationship between political authority and religious practice in early China. These critical moments of migration offer profound insights into the evolving religious landscape of early China, shedding light on how religion shaped early governance and public persuasion. “Capital relocation” served as a means to rearticulate belief, reaffirm the centrality of worship, and restore faith in the ruling order. Drawing on recent archeological discoveries and updated textual and inscriptional scholarship related to the events of Pan Geng and the Zhou relocation to Luoyi, this article re-examines the motif of “capital relocation” as both a historical and historiographical phenomenon unique to early China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
20 pages, 426 KB  
Article
A Different Perspective on Life Philosophy: Zhuangzi’s “Death-Life (死生)” Thought
by Tiantian Yu
Religions 2025, 16(5), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050630 - 16 May 2025
Viewed by 3682
Abstract
Modern society, dominated by rationalism, has led to the hollowing out of life’s meaning. In response to this predicament, the question of how to transcend instrumental rationality and reconstruct an understanding of human conditions becomes crucial. Among pre-Qin thinkers, Zhuangzi offers the most [...] Read more.
Modern society, dominated by rationalism, has led to the hollowing out of life’s meaning. In response to this predicament, the question of how to transcend instrumental rationality and reconstruct an understanding of human conditions becomes crucial. Among pre-Qin thinkers, Zhuangzi offers the most profound exploration of life-related issues. His “death-life” thought embodies unique philosophical implications, revealing the fluidity, wholeness, and infinity of life. The word order of “death-life” underscores the idea of the transformation of things (wuhua, 物化), illuminating two practical pathways toward the infinite circulation of life. This understanding of life resonates with Henri Bergson’s life philosophy in their shared reverence for life’s infinite flow through intuition. However, they diverge in their views on time and subjectivity. Despite their differences, their ideas can complement each other. Integrating Bergson’s spirit of creative evolution with Zhuangzi’s carefree and detached mindset may help dissolve modern society’s obsession with utilitarian goals, allowing individuals to engage in active creation while simultaneously embracing the spontaneity and boundless possibilities of each present moment. This synthesis provides valuable insights for reconstructing life’s meaning in contemporary society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
23 pages, 466 KB  
Article
A Study on the Philosophy of Perfect Harmony in the Huayan School: Focusing on the Four Dharmadhātus
by Guo-Qing Wang
Religions 2025, 16(5), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050621 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 3247
Abstract
The philosophy of the Huayan school is founded on the dharmadhātu (法界) as its fundamental ontology, embodying the boundless truth of the cosmos and human existence. It seamlessly integrates the philosophical doctrine of the “perfect interpenetration and non-obstruction of Buddhist teachings”, while expounding [...] Read more.
The philosophy of the Huayan school is founded on the dharmadhātu (法界) as its fundamental ontology, embodying the boundless truth of the cosmos and human existence. It seamlessly integrates the philosophical doctrine of the “perfect interpenetration and non-obstruction of Buddhist teachings”, while expounding the vast tenets of “principle (理), phenomena (事), wisdom (智), and practice (行),” all of which are encompassed within the comprehensive framework of the “four stages of faith–understanding–practice–realization (信解行证)”. The idea of “four dharmadhātus” (四法界), which was first systematically formulated by Master Chengguan, is considered one of the core doctrines of Huayan thought. However, contemporary scholarship has yet to provide a thorough elucidation of the relationship between the one true dharmadhātu (一真法界) and the four dharmadhātus, nor has it sufficiently addressed the notion that the four dharmadhātus are not merely a theoretical construct but also a genuine realization—a stage in the practice of spiritual cultivation. This study first explicates the conceptual significance of the four dharmadhātus, then analyzes the Huayan patriarchs’ interpretations of the one true dharmadhātu and the four dharmadhātus. It further explores the path to awakening through the interpenetration and non-obstruction of the four dharmadhātus and highlights the integration between the empirical world and the ideal world of Buddhist teachings. Ultimately, it argues that every realm and every stage within the dharmadhātu is perfectly complete and seamlessly interconnected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
17 pages, 325 KB  
Article
On the Transcendence of Master Hsing Yun’s Humanistic Buddhism
by Xunqi Zhang
Religions 2025, 16(5), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050601 - 8 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2169
Abstract
The issue of transcendence is a pivotal philosophical proposition in the contemporary development of Humanistic Buddhism, continuously provoking academic debates within the fields of religious studies and Buddhist scholarship. In response to the controversy over whether Humanistic Buddhism possesses transcendence, Master Hsing Yun [...] Read more.
The issue of transcendence is a pivotal philosophical proposition in the contemporary development of Humanistic Buddhism, continuously provoking academic debates within the fields of religious studies and Buddhist scholarship. In response to the controversy over whether Humanistic Buddhism possesses transcendence, Master Hsing Yun (星雲大師) addresses this question through three theoretical dimensions: constructing spiritual transcendence at the level of faith, achieving inner transcendence at the level of consciousness, and realizing a creative transcendence that integrates tradition and modernity within a historical context. Through the tripartite interaction of the Buddhist practice system, worldly engagement, and the philosophy of the Middle Way (中道), individuals can transcend their own lives and attain the perfection of their inherent Buddha-nature, ultimately achieving a unity of humanity and transcendence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
15 pages, 321 KB  
Article
The Role of Love in Ethical Development Beyond Family and Friendship in Confucianism: Insights from Matteo Ricci’s On Friendship
by Mark Kevin S. Cabural
Religions 2025, 16(5), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050554 - 26 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1620
Abstract
The family is a form of human relationship or organization that has been vital to the Chinese, influencing various aspects of its tradition. At its core lies the parent-child relationship, which emphasizes the virtue of filial piety (xiao 孝) and serves as [...] Read more.
The family is a form of human relationship or organization that has been vital to the Chinese, influencing various aspects of its tradition. At its core lies the parent-child relationship, which emphasizes the virtue of filial piety (xiao 孝) and serves as the beginning of ethical development. Beyond the family, friendship is another form of human relationship that can also contribute to ethical development but is seen only as an extension of the development that begins in the family. This article aims to discuss how friendship, as articulated in Matteo Ricci’s On Friendship (Li Madou 利玛窦, 1552–1610; Jiaoyou Lun 交友论), can deepen or contribute to ethical development that begins in the family and extends into friendship, as understood in the Confucian tradition. The discussion places particular emphasis on the role of love as it emerges in Ricci’s text. The overarching argument of this article is that Ricci’s understanding of love, which is the indispensable element that binds friends together, can contribute to strengthening the ethical development that originates from the family and extends into friendship, as understood in Confucianism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
21 pages, 538 KB  
Article
The Influence of Ming Dynasty Buddhism’s Chan Jing He Yi (Integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) on Buddhist Thought in Journey to the West
by Ran Wei
Religions 2025, 16(4), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040428 - 27 Mar 2025
Viewed by 2783
Abstract
In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 integrated Zen thought and Pure Land Buddhism based on the fusion of various Buddhist sects, which facilitated the transition to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism [...] Read more.
In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 integrated Zen thought and Pure Land Buddhism based on the fusion of various Buddhist sects, which facilitated the transition to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In this context, Journey to the West 西遊記, published in the late Ming Dynasty, reflects the characteristic of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). Based on the historical fact that the monk Xuanzang 玄奘 journeyed to India to seek Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty’s Zhenguan period, four relatively complete literary works that recount the stories of this westward journey were published over nearly a thousand years, from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty: Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, the Journey to the West drama 西遊記雜劇, and Journey to the West. The Buddhist ideas in these four works went through a transformation from advocating yoga theory 瑜伽論 to advocating belief in Vaisravana 毗沙門天王信仰 and then to focusing on the “mind nature 心性” theory of Zen Buddhism. Finally, in Journey to the West, Buddhist thought is aimed at achieving rebirth in the Western Pure Land and supplemented with Chan Buddhist practices, which are aligned with the trend of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In Journey to the West, the concepts of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) and Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) differ from the Zen Buddhism concept of seeing one’s own nature. Instead, it requires seeking other Buddhas and ascending to the Western Pure Land to meet Amitabha Buddha in order to achieve complete spiritual cultivation. This had changed from the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) theory advocated by Zen Buddhism to the Xi Fang Jing Tu (Western Pure Land 西方淨土) theory advocated by the Pure Land School. The numerous depictions of Pure Land cultivation methods, such as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛), Chi Jie (commandment keeping 持戒), and the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin faith 淨土往生型觀音信仰, also appear in Journey to the West, reflecting the profound influence of Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一 in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty on Journey to the West. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
21 pages, 357 KB  
Article
A Historical Examination of Westerners’ Pro-Confucianism in China During the Early Republican Years
by Pan Jia
Religions 2025, 16(3), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030356 - 12 Mar 2025
Viewed by 2476
Abstract
During the early Republican years in China, through the publication of several prominent Western individuals’ view with respect to the Confucian religion in materials like Kong jiao lun 孔教论 (On the Confucian Religion) and 孔教会杂志 (The Confucian Association Monthly), [...] Read more.
During the early Republican years in China, through the publication of several prominent Western individuals’ view with respect to the Confucian religion in materials like Kong jiao lun 孔教论 (On the Confucian Religion) and 孔教会杂志 (The Confucian Association Monthly), Chen Huanchang, the director of the Confucian Association, appeared to have successfully enlisted the support for the Association from some renowned Western figures in China, including Timothy Richard, Gilbert Reid, Hermann Graf Keyserling, Hiram Stevens Maxim, and Reginald Fleming Johnston. Notwithstanding the Confucian Association’s propaganda, Timothy Richard and Gilbert Reid’s patronage of the Confucian Association in fact stemmed from their concept of “uniting all religions”. The praises heaped on Confucius by Hermann Graf Keyserling and Hiram Stevens Maxim were totally unrelated to the Confucian Association but were cleverly packaged by Chen Huanchang as an ideal resource through his ingenious translation. Reginald Fleming Johnston’s laudatory remarks with respect to the Confucian Association were inevitably motivated by his political speculation. The superficial respect for Confucius among Westerners in China belied more complex and nuanced attitudes towards making the Confucian religion the state religion of China. Such attitudes reveal the multiple facets of Confucianism in the early Republican era in response to some of the challenges posed by modernization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
29 pages, 13364 KB  
Article
The Interactive Relationship and Influence Between Kitchen God Beliefs and Stoves in the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 AD)
by Xiangyu Liu
Religions 2025, 16(3), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030319 - 3 Mar 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4379
Abstract
The Kitchen God has always been regarded as the protector of Chinese families and one of the most common and far-reaching gods in Chinese folk beliefs. The emergence and development of the Kitchen God are inseparable from the material carrier of the stove. [...] Read more.
The Kitchen God has always been regarded as the protector of Chinese families and one of the most common and far-reaching gods in Chinese folk beliefs. The emergence and development of the Kitchen God are inseparable from the material carrier of the stove. The Han Dynasty was a critical period for the development and integration of stoves and the Kitchen God belief. Based on archaeological discoveries of cultural relics, characters and images, as well as relevant historical documents and records, this paper focuses on the interactive and symbiotic relationship between the spiritual belief in the Kitchen God and the material culture of kitchen stoves and its influence during the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty combined stoves with high cooking benches, large stove chambers, multiple burners, and functional designs that incorporated images of the Kitchen God, making them both practical and spiritual. The Kitchen God’s identity and functions were transformed from ancestor to household god, from giving food to monitoring merits and demerits, along with the renewal of stoves. These developments laid the foundation for the Chinese people’s earnest hope for a prosperous life and a peaceful and harmonious family. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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24 pages, 496 KB  
Article
Presentation and Analysis of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin Poetry and Its Modern Significance
by Enhai Lei and Xudong Hu
Religions 2025, 16(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010039 - 3 Jan 2025
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Abstract
The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, [...] Read more.
The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, along with its modern value and significance. To achieve the research objectives, the paper isolates related poems from the Complete Song Poetry and Complete Liao Jin Poetry as the research objects. First, it organizes and classifies the relevant poems through the ways in which the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism” is presented. Second, it examines the reasons behind this phenomenon, including the intellectualization of poetry and the Confucian academic background of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests. Thirdly, it explores the value and significance of this thought for modern China, showcasing the inherent diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony in Chinese culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
18 pages, 647 KB  
Article
Reflection on the Unity of the Three Teachings in the Late Ming Dynasty—Centered on the Concept of “Sanhanjiao Is Non-Orthodox Teaching” in The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven
by Zhejia Tang
Religions 2024, 15(12), 1425; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121425 - 24 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2756
Abstract
In his work The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Matteo Ricci not only criticized Buddhism and Taoism but also put forward the viewpoint that “Sanhanjiao is non-orthodox teaching”. The so-called Sanhanjiao actually refers to the three teachings into one established [...] Read more.
In his work The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Matteo Ricci not only criticized Buddhism and Taoism but also put forward the viewpoint that “Sanhanjiao is non-orthodox teaching”. The so-called Sanhanjiao actually refers to the three teachings into one established by Lin Zhaoen, so Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one, to some extent, is also a criticism of Lin Zhaoen’s “Three-in-One Doctrine”. Ricci used the argument “One Teaching cannot have Three Teachings” to criticize the view of “One Dao, Three Teachings” and also used “it is not possible to forcibly equate the Three Teachings” to criticize the theory of “the Three Teachings are the same”, bringing the perspective of the uniqueness of faith in Western religious culture to China. Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one is based on the premise of spreading Catholicism; his argument mainly relies on the logical reasoning of the Western way of thinking, thus ignoring the inherent characteristics of Chinese indigenous culture. However, his viewpoint at least broke the mainstream ideology of “the Unity of the Three Teachings” in the late Ming Dynasty and also provided significant inspiration for the intellectuals of the late Ming Dynasty to reflect on this trend. Ricci’s dialogue with Chinese indigenous religions did not erase the differences between their respective cultures, but actually promoted the integration between Chinese and Western cultures. Therefore, the significance of The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven lies not only in the dissemination of Catholic thought but also implies a dialogue and cultural transformation between different civilizations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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19 pages, 383 KB  
Article
Transcending Individual Traditions: Zhang Taiyan’s Interpretation of Zhuangzi’s Notion of Chengxin
by Cheng Wang
Religions 2024, 15(11), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111309 - 26 Oct 2024
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Abstract
This article examines the nuanced interpretations of chengxin 成心 in the Zhuangzi 莊子, a foundational Daoist text, across different philosophical traditions. Historically, Daoist thinkers like Guo Xiang 郭象 and Cheng Xuanying 成玄英, along with Neo-Confucian scholars such as Lü Huiqing 吕惠卿 and Lin [...] Read more.
This article examines the nuanced interpretations of chengxin 成心 in the Zhuangzi 莊子, a foundational Daoist text, across different philosophical traditions. Historically, Daoist thinkers like Guo Xiang 郭象 and Cheng Xuanying 成玄英, along with Neo-Confucian scholars such as Lü Huiqing 吕惠卿 and Lin Xiyi 林希逸, have provided differing perspectives on the notion of chengxin. They regard it as either a source of subjective bias or an expression of heavenly principle. The core focus of this study is Zhang Taiyan’s 章太炎 innovative interpretation of chengxin as seeds (bijas) within ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness), integrating Yogācāra Buddhist concepts with traditional Daoist philosophy. The study conducts a textual analysis of Zhang’s Qiwulun Shi 齊物論釋, comparing his interpretation with earlier commentaries on the Zhuangzi. It is argued that Zhang’s approach is profoundly influenced by the Buddhist doctrine of non-duality, which underscores the interconnectedness of all phenomena. While Zhang’s interpretation has faced criticism from contemporaries and later philosophers for misunderstandings of Yogācāra theory and Kantian philosophy, it employs the method of geyi 格義 (matching concepts), not to impose one tradition over another, but to foster a dialogical process where the insights from each tradition mutually inform and transform one another. This article highlights the interpretative openness of the Zhuangzi, which invites diverse interpretations, and demonstrates how Zhang’s approach enriches this tradition by synthesizing various philosophical and religious frameworks. Zhang’s methodology remains relevant, fostering cross-cultural and inclusive philosophical dialog. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
15 pages, 394 KB  
Article
Fang Yizhi’s Transformation of the Consciousness-Only Theory in Yaodi Pao Zhuang: A Comparison and Analysis Based on Literature
by Qing Wu
Religions 2024, 15(8), 953; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080953 - 6 Aug 2024
Viewed by 2523
Abstract
Yaodi Pao Zhuang (Monk Yaodi Distills the Essence of the Zhuangzi, 藥地炮莊), written by Ming dynasty scholar Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), was one of the greatest annotations of Zhuangzi 庄子 in the late Ming dynasty. However, the Buddhist thought in Yaodi Pao Zhuang [...] Read more.
Yaodi Pao Zhuang (Monk Yaodi Distills the Essence of the Zhuangzi, 藥地炮莊), written by Ming dynasty scholar Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), was one of the greatest annotations of Zhuangzi 庄子 in the late Ming dynasty. However, the Buddhist thought in Yaodi Pao Zhuang has scarcely been examined. Drawing on the revival of the consciousness-only (vijñaptimātratā, 唯識) theory during the Ming dynasty, this study discussed how Fang Yizhi transformed the theory to annotate Zhuangzi in Yaodi Pao Zhuang through literature comparison and logical analysis. Meanwhile, from a speculative viewpoint drawing on Yi studies (studies of the Yi Jing, 易學), Fang Yizhi demonstrated that “storehouse consciousness” (alaya-vijnana, 阿賴耶識) could have contrasting properties of defilement (samklesa, 染) and purity (suddha, 淨). Moreover, he proposed “consciousness is wisdom” to replace the consciousness-only view of “transforming consciousness into wisdom” prevailing in the Tang dynasty, thus providing the conditions for the interpenetration of the consciousness-only doctrine into Zhuangzi. This study’s results highlight the positive implications of Fang Yizhi’s mutually supportive interaction model of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism for addressing contemporary cultural conflicts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
17 pages, 383 KB  
Article
Exploring the Significance of “Discerning the Zong (Bian Zong 辨宗)” in the Sectarianization of Buddhism
by Peng Zhou
Religions 2024, 15(8), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080914 - 28 Jul 2024
Viewed by 2913
Abstract
The prelude holds dual significance. Firstly, it denotes the initial exploration of sectarian Buddhism by the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong. Secondly, it signifies the act of “exploring” itself as a means of establishing a distinct sect. The concept of “Discerning the [...] Read more.
The prelude holds dual significance. Firstly, it denotes the initial exploration of sectarian Buddhism by the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong. Secondly, it signifies the act of “exploring” itself as a means of establishing a distinct sect. The concept of “Discerning the Zong” not only permeates the context of the sectarianization of Buddhism but also exerts influence on the evolution trajectory of the Sinicization of Buddhism to some extent. Sectarian Buddhism is rooted in the foundational principles and overarching framework of the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong, presenting a continuous portrayal of the development of Chinese Buddhist sects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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