Search Results (75)

Background: Although menstrual cycle-based training has attracted increasing attention in endurance sports, research has predominantly focused on ergometric parameters. However, the subjective perspectives and lived realities of athletes remain relatively underexamined. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore performance perceptions and self-regulatory experiences of female endurance athletes within real-life training and competitive contexts. Methods: Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve female endurance athletes (ages 18–42) across triathlon, running, swimming, cycling, and skiing. Data were analysed inductively using descriptive thematic analysis in MaxQDA. Results: Six themes emerged related to menstrual cycle experiences: body awareness and cycle-related perceptions; the influence of expectations and self-efficacy on perceived performance; heterogeneous approaches to cycle-based training; training and recovery adjustments; the ambivalent role of digital tracking tools; and communication openness and barriers. Overall, cycle-based training was applied inconsistently and served more as a framework for interpreting physical symptoms than as a means of optimising performance. Conclusions: In this sample of endurance athletes, cycle-related effects on performance and symptom perceptions were primarily shaped by biopsychosocial factors rather than physiological considerations alone. The menstrual cycle supported self-regulation, but rigid interpretations may risk reinforcing negative expectancies. These insights extend existing work by foregrounding athlete-centred, flexible approaches over deterministic training models. Full article

Background: The aim of the present study was to identify the discipline with the greatest predictive value for overall performance in Olympic-distance triathlon. Methods: Data were extracted from the API (Application Programming Interface) service on the World Triathlon website by signing up for the free service. A custom Python code was written to perform different data collection operations. General statistical analyses and machine learning analyses were performed by creating a Jupyter Notebook file. TensorFlow and PyTorch libraries were used for machine learning analysis. Results: Fifty percent of the employed models identified cycling as the most predictive discipline for race success for both sexes, whereas 33% selected running as the determining discipline. To achieve a podium finish, approximately 78% of the models classified running as the most predictive discipline for males, and approximately 56% of the models did so for females. For finishes between fourth and tenth place, approximately 78% of the models proposed running as the most predictive discipline for both sexes. Swimming was never identified as the most predictive discipline by the majority of models for any group or sex. Conclusion: The most predictive discipline in Olympic triathlon depends on the athlete’s sex and competitive level. Nonetheless, running remains the most consistently predictive discipline, whereas swimming rarely acts as a performance differentiator. Full article

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between water intake and post-race gastrointestinal illness in triathletes. Following a post-event survey approach, we evaluated the association between water intake and gastrointestinal illness in triathletes. We collected data among participants of six different triathlons in the Netherlands using an online questionnaire about personal characteristics (age, sex, swimming experience, chronic illness, and athletic level), the completed triathlon (length and duration), water intake, and illnesses during the 7 days following the triathlon. The associations between water intake and gastrointestinal illness were analyzed using generalized estimating equations logistic regression. In total, 1294 athletes participated in this study. The average rate of gastrointestinal illnesses per triathlon was 5.1%. In total, 75.3% of the athletes reported water intake during the race. The associations between water intake and gastrointestinal illnesses were significant. Triathletes with one to three sips of water intake reported 3.7 times more gastrointestinal illnesses (OR = 3.672, 95%CI: 1.316–10.242, p = 0.013) compared to those who did not ingest water. Triathletes with four or more sips of water intake reported 5.1 times more gastrointestinal illnesses (OR = 5.070, 95%CI: 1.740–14.767, p = 0.003). In conclusion, water intake was associated with an increased risk of post-race gastrointestinal illness. The results advocate for improved water quality monitoring and preventive measures in triathlon. Full article

Background/Objectives: Optimal post-exercise nutrition is critical for maximizing recovery and subsequent performance. However, athletes often lack knowledge of guidelines, leading to suboptimal practices, particularly inadequate carbohydrate intake for glycogen resynthesis. This study aimed to assess the adherence of Hungarian endurance athletes to nutritional recommendations, identifying deficits and guiding the development of effective educational strategies. Methods: A cross-sectional study surveyed 113 amateur Hungarian endurance athletes (mean age 40.04 ± 9.89 years) training ≥ 3 times/week using a self-developed online questionnaire. A ten-item composite measure, the Post-Exercise Nutrition Recommendation Adherence Score (PENRAS, max 10 points), was calculated to assess adherence. Statistical analyses, including ANOVA and regression, were used to explore factors influencing PENRAS and nutritional practices. Results: The overall mean PENRAS was 5.32 ± 1.52, indicating room for improvement. The most pronounced deficit was observed in quantitative knowledge, with only 1.8% of participants correctly identifying the optimal carbohydrate content required for rapid glycogen resynthesis. Concurrently, high protein content (58.4%) was mentioned by a higher percentage than high carbohydrate content (52.2%) as an aspect of post-exercise meal planning. Triathletes had significantly higher PENRAS than runners (6.28 vs. 4.97, p = 0.001). Higher PENRAS was also significantly associated with consultation with a dietitian (p = 0.018). Reliance on professionals positively predicted knowledge, while online sources were a significant negative predictor. Higher PENRAS was associated with better meal planning and earlier post-exercise meal timing. Conclusions: Endurance athletes’ post-exercise nutritional practices are suboptimal. The findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions prioritizing education on carbohydrate intake and redirecting athletes towards evidence-based information to improve adherence and performance outcomes. Full article

Background: In Mexico, research on somatotypes in athletes has primarily focused on team sports, taekwondo, climbing, and triathlon. However, the available evidence remains limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the somatotype of Mexican athletes by sex, and to compare somatotype and body composition across sport macro-categories in 43 disciplines. Methods: Anthropometric measurements were conducted according to the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol. Athletes who participated in regional, national, or international competitions between 2008 and 2024 were included. Results: A total of 889 Mexican athletes (477 males and 412 females) across 43 disciplines were evaluated. Among male athletes, the predominant somatotype was endomorphic mesomorph (52.4%), followed by balanced mesomorph (17.6%) and ectomorphic mesomorph (13.6%). Among female athletes, the most reported somatotypes were endomorphic mesomorph (24.5%), mesomorphic endomorph (24.0%), and mesomorph-endomorph (21.4%). Athletes in endurance sports showed significant differences for both sexes compared to those in power and skill-based sports for both sexes (p < 0.05). Among males, team sports showed the highest values for body mass, height, and body fat percentage (%BF), while mesomorphy was greatest in track and field and ectomorphy in sprint events. Among females, track and field athletes presented the highest values for body mass, height, %BF, mesomorphy, and endomorphy, whereas endurance athletes exhibited the highest ectomorphy values. Conclusions: The findings suggest that, compared to international athletes, Mexican athletes exhibited a higher endomorphic component. It is recommended that somatotype assessments should be incorporated into regular monitoring protocols at national sports centers and considered in physical training programs to optimize performance and reduce the risk of injury. Full article

Background: The complexity of triathlon goes beyond the multidisciplinary nature of the sport and extends to the physical and mental health of the athlete. One of the most relevant aspects is injuries, which, in addition to the physical impact, can affect mental health indicators. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between injuries sustained by triathletes and mental health indicators. Methods: Sixty-three subjects participated, of whom 48 suffered one or two injuries. The average age was 37.83 years, and the sample consisted of 34 men (39.56 years) and 29 women (32.21 years). The instruments used were an online questionnaire to collect the number of injuries, type, and severity; the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21); and the Profile of Mood States (POMS). A longitudinal study was conducted, lasting six months, where the questionnaires were administered monthly. Results: The greater the number of injuries, the higher the scores in the coefficients of variation of anger and vigor, and the highest peak is found in the variable stress, followed by anxiety and depression. Conclusions: Triathletes who suffer a greater number of injuries have higher scores in stress and depression, and their level of vigor and anger is increased, so they present a more negative and reactive stress and mood profile. Full article

Triathlon is a multi-sport event that combines swimming, cycling and running. The distances vary and the physiological demands are high. Objectives: This review compiles information on nutritional strategies and ergogenic supplements for triathlon training, competition and recovery. It aims to provide an understanding of the specific challenges and needs of the sport to help triathletes and coaches optimise performance through effective training and nutrition plans. Methods: English-language publications were searched using the keywords triathlon, nutrition, recovery and ergogenic aids, alone or in combination, in databases. Results: Maintaining good glycogen levels, consuming enough carbohydrates and staying properly hydrated are key to athletic performance, especially for triathletes. Education regarding nutrition, the role of probiotics and supplements, and diet modification for the enhancement of performance and recovery are pivotal considerations. Conclusions: Triathletes are at risk of RED-S due to negative energy balance and high fibre/plant protein diets, especially women. Optimising muscle glycogen through tailored diet and training, especially pre- and in-race nutrition, including carbohydrate loading and hydration strategies, is critical. Education is needed to improve post-exercise nutrition, while probiotics and certain supplements may aid performance and recovery. Dietary support is important for resistance training to optimise performance and recovery. Full article

Introduction: Meniscus injuries are common among endurance athletes, requiring structured rehabilitation to restore function and facilitate a safe return to sport. Traditional in-person rehabilitation may not always be accessible or feasible for high-performance athletes. Telerehabilitation, incorporating virtual reality, motion tracking, and telemonitoring, offers an innovative approach to guided recovery. However, evidence supporting its effectiveness in elite athletes remains limited. Case presentation: This case report explores the application of an innovative telerehabilitation program for a 49-year-old triathlete recovering from partial meniscectomy following a medial meniscus tear. The program was structured into three progressive phases over 12 weeks, focusing on restoring range of motion (ROM), muscle strength, and functional stability while gradually reintroducing sports-specific activities. Results: By the end of the rehabilitation, the patient achieved full ROM and muscle strength (scoring 5/5 on the Medical Research Council scale for the vastus medialis), along with a pain-free state in both static and dynamic conditions. The integration of telemonitoring devices facilitated detailed monitoring and feedback, enabling personalized adjustments to the rehabilitation protocol. Key milestones included a return to swimming and cycling in Phase 2, reintroduction of running in Phase 3, and a full resumption of triathlon training by week 12. Conclusions: Despite the positive results, the study highlights the need for further research to validate these findings across larger cohorts and establish standardized telerehabilitation protocols for athletes. This case underscores the potential of digital health technologies in enhancing recovery trajectories for high-demand athletes post-meniscus surgery, paving the way for supervised, accelerated, and effective sports reintegration. Full article

Background/Objectives: As an endurance multi-sport race, triathlon places significant energy demands on athletes during performance and training. Insufficient energy intake from food can lead to low energy availability (LEA) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). We aimed to measure symptoms related to LEA, examine the risk of RED-S, and find how diet relates to the risk of RED-S in highly trained female amateur triathletes. Methods: Our sample was 20 top-performing female triathletes competing in Quarter Ironman (IM), Half IM, IM, or Double IM triathlons for 5.5 ± 2.5 y who were during the preparatory phase of training (training load 11 ± 3.76 h/week, a single workout 84 ± 25 min). Triathletes completed 3-day food diaries, training diaries, and the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q). Exercise energy expenditure was estimated using wrist-worn activity trackers. To examine dietary patterns related to the first signs of LEA, predating RED-S, we created two groups: the L-LEA group (LEAF-Q score 0–5, no symptoms related to LEA, low risk of RED-S, n = 10) and the H-LEA group (LEAF-Q ≥ 6, at least one LEA-related symptom, high risk of RED-S, n = 10). Results: The risk of RED-S was prevalent in 30% of female triathletes, and 50% showed at least one symptom related to LEA. Macronutrient intake was similar in all participants, but triathletes from the H-LEA group tended to eat more plant-sourced protein and fiber. They consumed less saturated fatty acids but ingested more significant amounts of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAn6). Conclusions: We conclude that foods higher in plant proteins, fiber, and PUFAn6 might predispose female triathletes to LEA by reducing the diet’s energy density. Full article

Air pollution is a major health-related environmental challenge that affects many aspects of people’s daily lives. For amateur endurance athletes/exercisers, air pollution can cause, apart from the common health issues, reduced performance capacity during training and races. The most significant inconveniences that these amateur athletes/exercisers have to deal with, are related to breathing difficulty, increased heart rate, cough or respiratory problems, and eye or nose discomfort. The aim of this study is to create a psychometric scale that estimates the nuisance/discomfort that amateur endurance athletes/exercisers (triathlon, cycling, running, swimming) feel during their training, under conditions of increased air pollution, and to see how this is linked to demographic characteristics. The main overall purpose is the identification of possible correlation between air pollution and reduced athletic performance, as well as between air pollution and the wellbeing of amateur endurance athletes/exercisers, and to thus enable recommendations on training in a polluted environment. To this aim, a questionnaire was developed, initially through a pilot stage. The fully developed scale was provided to two hundred and ninety-two (292) amateur endurance athletes/exercisers for an exploratory factor analysis to be carried out. The exploratory factor analysis indicated three (3) factors accounting for 37.11% of the overall variance. The first factor “Physical discomfort” included nine (9) questions, the second factor “Lack of discomfort” five (5) questions, and the third factor “No general discomfort” six (6) questions. The degree of reliability was satisfactory, since Cronbach’s a coefficient was 0.841 for the first factor, 0.642 for the second, and 0.766 for the third factor. Subsequently, fluctuation analysis (ANOVA), multivariate fluctuation analysis (MANOVA), and Pearson’s r coefficient were used to indicate correlations between the independent variables and the three factors identified. Correlation between discomfort due to air pollution and the place of residence, as well as the presence or absence of allergies, was indicated. On the other hand, there were no significant statistical differences between gender, type of sport, the volume of training, the presence or not of respiratory problems, and smoking. Overall, the scale can be considered both valid and reliable. Full article

Background/Objectives: The PPARGC1A gene, encoding the PGC-1α protein, is a critical regulator of energy metabolism, influencing mitochondrial biogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and carbohydrate metabolism. This narrative review aims to evaluate the role of the PPARGC1A gene, with a specific focus on the c.1444G<A polymorphism (rs8192678), in sports performance, including its impact on aerobic capacity, muscle adaptation, and its potential implications for metabolic health. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science, following PRISMA guidelines. Studies investigating the rs8192678 polymorphism in athletes, its relationship with physical performance, and its broader metabolic effects were included. Data were synthesized qualitatively, and heterogeneity among findings was assessed. The rs8192678 polymorphism influences sports performance differently. Results: the G allele is associated with enhanced mitochondrial efficiency, higher aerobic capacity, and a greater proportion of fatigue-resistant type I muscle fibers, benefiting endurance sports like cycling and triathlon. Conversely, the A allele correlates with reduced mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative capacity, potentially impairing endurance but showing possible utility in strength-based sports. Furthermore, the A allele is linked to increased risks of metabolic conditions, including type 2 diabetes and obesity. Discrepancies in results highlight the influence of genetic, environmental, and training interactions. Conclusions: the PPARGC1A rs8192678 polymorphism plays a significant role in athletic performance and metabolic regulation. While the G allele confers advantages in endurance sports, the A allele presents mixed implications for strength and metabolic health. These findings support the potential for genetic profiling in personalized training and health interventions but emphasize the need for further research to clarify genotype-environment interactions. Full article

Background: Assessments of muscle strength help prescribe and monitor training loads in cyclists (e.g., triathletes). Some methods include repetition maximum, joint isokinetic tests, and indirect estimates. However, their specificity for cycling’s dynamic force application and competitive cadences is lacking. This study aims to determine the influence of the cycling isokinetic peak force (cIPF) at different cadences on aerobic performance-related variables in trained triathletes. Methods: Eleven trained male athletes (33 ± 9.8 years, 173.1 ± 5.0 cm height, 73.9 ± 6.8 kg body mass, and ≥5 years of triathlon experience) were recruited. Maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂ max), ventilatory thresholds (i.e., VT1 and VT2), and cIPF were assessed. cIPF testing involved 10 s sprints at varied cadences with 4 min rest intervals. Pedaling cadences were set at low (60 rpm), moderate (80 and 100 rpm), and high (120 and 140 rpm) cadences. A regression model approach identified cIPF related to aerobic performance. Results: IPF at 80 and 120 rpm explained 49% of the variability in power output at VT1, 55% of the variability in power output at VT2, 65% of the variability in power output at maximal aerobic power (MAP), and 39% of the variability in VO₂ max. The cycling economy was not explained by cIPF. Conclusions: This study highlights the significance of cIPF, particularly at moderate to high cadences, as a determinant of aerobic-related variables in trained triathletes. Cycling cIPF should be tested to understand an athlete’s profile during crank cycling, informing better practice for training specificity and ultimately supporting athletes in achieving optimal performance outcomes in competitive cycling events. Full article

Elite athletes are an under-represented population in scientific studies, and there are no works analysing the influence of hypoxia in elite triathletes. The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of different methods of normobaric hypoxia on repeated sprint ability (RSA) performance. This study was a case study with an elite triathlete who has won nine triathlon world championships. The study used a combination of different methods of normobaric hypoxia. The three methods combined were as follows: live high-train low interspersed; intermittent hypoxic training; and intermittent hypoxic exposure. This study analysed the influence of these methods on RSA performance in variables such as power output, saturation of muscular oxygen, heart rate and ventilatory variables (VO₂ and VCO₂). The triathlete was measured before the training protocol (PRE), just after (POST-D3) and 21 days after the end of the protocol (POST-D21). This type of protocol has shown that it can lead to an improvement in RSA performance in the number of sprints (PRE vs. POST-D3 vs. POST-D21: 19 vs. 24 vs. 28), power output (PRE 615 W vs. POST-D3 685 W vs. POST-D21 683W) and efficiency of the triathlete. This work may be useful in improving power output and repeated sprint ability for elite triathletes. Full article

Background/Objectives: Endurance triathlons impose substantial physiological stress, yet the effects of short-course formats remain relatively unexplored. This preliminary study presents novel findings on proteinuria and hydration levels in well-trained triathletes. Methods: 27 participants (41.9 ± 7.4 years) who completed a sprint triathlon consisting of a 1500 m swim, 26 km cycle, and 8 km run. Urine samples were collected before and after the race. Results: Our results revealed a significant increase in post-race proteinuria cases from four to nine (p = 0.03) and the first reported case of post-race urobilinuria and ketoacidosis in this context. Additionally, pre-race glucosuria, present in nine cases, decreased to three post-race. Hematuria cases decreased from six to two (p = 0.13) and pre-race leukocyturia resolved post-race. There was a significant increase in urine specific gravity (from 1.018 to 1.023, p = 0.03), indicating dehydration. Conclusions: Short-course triathlons significantly induced post-race proteinuria, urobilinuria, and dehydration, highlighting the substantial physiological stress on kidney function and hydration status despite the shorter distances. These findings underscore the importance of monitoring urinary biomarkers and hydration levels in athletes before and after competition. Full article

The aim of this study was to analyze the needs and preferences of sports volunteers regarding nutritional education, with particular emphasis on the availability of educational materials and expectations towards event organizers. The methodology was grounded in a qualitative approach, employing detailed individual interviews (IDIs) with seventeen volunteers (n = 17) who were actively involved in various sporting events, including races, triathlons, and athletic competitions at local, national, and international levels. This sample size was justified as it was sufficient to achieve data saturation, meaning no new significant themes emerged after these interviews. The results indicate that most participants feel a lack of access to reliable information about nutrition, with 70% (n = 12) indicating a need for educational materials, which limits their ability to make informed dietary decisions. Volunteers expect event organizers to provide educational materials and prefer a variety of practical forms of education, such as interactive workshops and accessible online resources. While the volunteers expressed a desire for improved nutritional education, further investigation is needed to establish a direct link between this education and potential enhancements in their performance and well-being. For this reason, greater attention should be paid to the nutritional education of volunteers, which is a key element of their preparation to work in high-stress and physically intense conditions. Full article