The Relationship between Obesity and Urban Environment in Seoul
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Participants
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Individual-Level Variables
2.2.2. Environmental-Level Variables
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ General Characteristics
3.2. Multilevel Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Men | Women | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | |
Total | 20,147 | 100 | 25,300 | 100 |
Age | ||||
19–29 | 3300 | 16.4 | 4153 | 16.4 |
30–39 | 4353 | 21.6 | 5124 | 20.3 |
40–49 | 4201 | 20.9 | 5228 | 20.7 |
50–59 | 3633 | 18.0 | 4986 | 19.7 |
60–69 | 2691 | 13.4 | 3347 | 13.2 |
Over 70’s | 1969 | 9.8 | 2462 | 9.7 |
Household income | ||||
First group | 4292 | 21.3 | 6095 | 24.1 |
Second group | 3536 | 17.6 | 4279 | 16.9 |
Third group | 4031 | 20.0 | 4860 | 19.2 |
Fourth group | 3733 | 18.5 | 4509 | 17.8 |
Fifth group | 4555 | 22.6 | 5557 | 22.0 |
Educational attainment | ||||
Lower than middle school | 3327 | 16.5 | 6553 | 25.9 |
High school graduate | 7266 | 36.1 | 8748 | 34.6 |
College graduate | 8049 | 40.0 | 8994 | 35.5 |
Graduate school or higher | 1505 | 7.5 | 1005 | 4.0 |
Current smoking status | ||||
Yes | 8130 | 40.4 | 881 | 3.5 |
No | 12,017 | 59.6 | 24,419 | 96.5 |
Walking | ||||
Yes | 11,413 | 56.6 | 13,488 | 53.3 |
No | 8734 | 43.4 | 11,812 | 46.7 |
Television viewing or internet surfing | ||||
Yes | 5276 | 26.2 | 6702 | 26.5 |
No | 14,871 | 73.8 | 18,599 | 73.5 |
Fruit intake | ||||
Yes | 8812 | 43.7 | 14,891 | 58.9 |
No | 11,335 | 56.3 | 10,409 | 41.1 |
Vegetable intake | ||||
Yes | 6711 | 33.3 | 9498 | 37.5 |
No | 13,436 | 66.7 | 15,802 | 62.5 |
High salt intake | ||||
Yes | 6561 | 32.6 | 5776 | 22.8 |
No | 13,586 | 67.4 | 19,524 | 77.2 |
Stress level | ||||
Non-stressful | 14,379 | 71.4 | 17,814 | 70.4 |
Stressful | 5768 | 28.6 | 7486 | 29.6 |
Self-reported health | ||||
Good | 2217 | 11.0 | 3969 | 15.7 |
Bad | 17,930 | 89.0 | 21,331 | 84.3 |
Obesity | ||||
Low weight | 454 | 2.3 | 2281 | 9.0 |
Normal weight | 13,681 | 67.9 | 18,785 | 74.2 |
Obese | 6012 | 29.8 | 4234 | 16.7 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | |
Intercept | −0.854 | 0.022 | <0.0001 | −1.520 | 0.086 | <.0001 | −0.362 | 0.721 | 0.624 | −0.686 | 0.699 | 0.346 |
Individual-level predictors | ||||||||||||
Age, groups (19–29, reference) | ||||||||||||
30–39 | 0.584 | 0.064 | <0.0001 | 0.578 | 0.064 | <0.0001 | ||||||
40–49 | 0.411 | 0.085 | <0.0001 | 0.403 | 0.085 | <0.0001 | ||||||
50–59 | 0.183 | 0.113 | 0.104 | 0.175 | 0.113 | 0.122 | ||||||
60–69 | −0.019 | 0.145 | 0.893 | −0.029 | 0.145 | 0.840 | ||||||
Over 70’s | −0.459 | 0.181 | 0.011 | −0.475 | 0.181 | 0.009 | ||||||
Household income (First group, reference) | ||||||||||||
Second group | 0.018 | 0.055 | 0.741 | 0.016 | 0.055 | 0.776 | ||||||
Third group | 0.127 | 0.053 | 0.017 | 0.124 | 0.053 | 0.020 | ||||||
Fourth group | 0.143 | 0.055 | 0.009 | 0.140 | 0.055 | 0.011 | ||||||
Fifth group | 0.112 | 0.054 | 0.039 | 0.115 | 0.054 | 0.034 | ||||||
Educational attainment (Lower than middle school, reference) | ||||||||||||
High school graduate | 0.017 | 0.055 | 0.758 | 0.018 | 0.055 | 0.741 | ||||||
College graduate | 0.145 | 0.057 | 0.011 | 0.153 | 0.058 | 0.008 | ||||||
Graduate school or higher | 0.190 | 0.078 | 0.015 | 0.202 | 0.079 | 0.010 | ||||||
Current smoking status | −0.188 | 0.035 | <0.0001 | −0.188 | 0.035 | <0.0001 | ||||||
High risk drinking | 0.299 | 0.037 | <0.0001 | 0.298 | 0.037 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Drinking period | 0.008 | 0.003 | 0.026 | 0.008 | 0.003 | 0.022 | ||||||
Walking | −0.080 | 0.033 | 0.014 | −0.081 | 0.033 | 0.014 | ||||||
Television viewing or internet surfing | 0.081 | 0.038 | 0.032 | 0.082 | 0.038 | 0.030 | ||||||
Fruit intake | −0.001 | 0.035 | 0.968 | −0.002 | 0.035 | 0.960 | ||||||
Vegetable intake | −0.015 | 0.036 | 0.672 | −0.015 | 0.036 | 0.668 | ||||||
High salt intake | 0.237 | 0.034 | <0.0001 | 0.236 | 0.034 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Stress level | ||||||||||||
Non-stressful(reference) | ||||||||||||
Stressful | 0.095 | 0.036 | 0.008 | 0.095 | 0.036 | 0.008 | ||||||
Self-reported health | ||||||||||||
Good(reference) | ||||||||||||
Bad | 0.112 | 0.056 | 0.047 | 0.111 | 0.056 | 0.048 | ||||||
Environment-level predictor | ||||||||||||
The area of parks | −0.013 | 0.012 | 0.305 | −0.011 | 0.012 | 0.364 | ||||||
The number of sports facilities | −0.142 | 0.056 | 0.027 | −0.127 | 0.054 | 0.038 | ||||||
The rate of commute by cars | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.330 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.100 | ||||||
Satisfaction on walking environment | 0.012 | 0.009 | 0.203 | 0.012 | 0.008 | 0.170 | ||||||
Food insecurity rate | −0.188 | 0.091 | 0.061 | −0.217 | 0.088 | 0.029 | ||||||
The number of fast food stores | −0.012 | 0.022 | 0.592 | −0.007 | 0.022 | 0.765 | ||||||
The number of fried chicken stores | 0.363 | 0.184 | 0.073 | 0.393 | 0.178 | 0.048 | ||||||
Urbanization rate | −0.011 | 0.051 | 0.825 | −0.040 | 0.049 | 0.431 | ||||||
Social trust | 0.128 | 0.071 | 0.097 | 0.102 | 0.069 | 0.165 | ||||||
Fiscal self-reliance ratio | 0.009 | 0.005 | 0.136 | 0.006 | 0.005 | 0.273 | ||||||
Crime rate | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.159 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.462 | ||||||
The number of beds | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.654 | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.778 | ||||||
Random Effects | ||||||||||||
0.007 | 0.004 | 0.033 | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.064 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.223 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.316 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | Estimate | S.E. | Pr > |t| | |
Intercept | −1.617 | 0.045 | <0.0001 | −2.341 | 0.106 | <0.0001 | −2.617 | 0.710 | 0.003 | −3.209 | 0.847 | 0.003 |
Individual-level predictors | ||||||||||||
Age, groups (19–29, reference) | ||||||||||||
30–39 | 0.709 | 0.085 | <0.0001 | 0.702 | 0.085 | <0.0001 | ||||||
40–49 | 0.970 | 0.088 | <0.0001 | 0.964 | 0.088 | <0.0001 | ||||||
50–59 | 1.063 | 0.098 | <0.0001 | 1.062 | 0.098 | <0.0001 | ||||||
60–69 | 1.317 | 0.112 | <0.0001 | 1.317 | 0.112 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Over 70’s | 1.121 | 0.134 | <0.0001 | 1.121 | 0.134 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Household income (First group, reference) | ||||||||||||
Second group | 0.037 | 0.061 | 0.543 | 0.031 | 0.061 | 0.611 | ||||||
Third group | −0.005 | 0.062 | 0.936 | −0.010 | 0.062 | 0.870 | ||||||
Fourth group | −0.069 | 0.066 | 0.296 | −0.072 | 0.066 | 0.272 | ||||||
Fifth group | −0.257 | 0.068 | 0.000 | −0.247 | 0.068 | 0.000 | ||||||
Educational attainment (Lower than middle school, reference) | ||||||||||||
High school graduate | −0.291 | 0.057 | <0.0001 | −0.280 | 0.057 | <0.0001 | ||||||
College graduate | −0.759 | 0.071 | <0.0001 | −0.732 | 0.071 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Graduate school or higher | −1.129 | 0.152 | <0.0001 | −1.086 | 0.153 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Current smoking status | −0.265 | 0.108 | 0.014 | −0.255 | 0.108 | 0.018 | ||||||
High risk drinking | 0.199 | 0.092 | 0.031 | 0.199 | 0.092 | 0.030 | ||||||
Drinking period | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.374 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.323 | ||||||
Walking | −0.020 | 0.040 | 0.617 | −0.021 | 0.040 | 0.598 | ||||||
Television viewing or internet surfing | 0.314 | 0.044 | <0.0001 | 0.311 | 0.044 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Fruit intake | −0.091 | 0.043 | 0.033 | −0.088 | 0.043 | 0.040 | ||||||
Vegetable intake | −0.035 | 0.043 | 0.421 | −0.031 | 0.043 | 0.479 | ||||||
High salt intake | 0.323 | 0.045 | <0.0001 | 0.324 | 0.045 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Stress level | ||||||||||||
Non-stressful(reference) | ||||||||||||
Stressful | 0.176 | 0.044 | <0.0001 | 0.176 | 0.044 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Self-reported health | ||||||||||||
Good(reference) | ||||||||||||
Bad | 0.219 | 0.055 | <0.0001 | 0.218 | 0.055 | <0.0001 | ||||||
Environment-level predictor | ||||||||||||
The area of parks | −0.019 | 0.012 | 0.139 | −0.022 | 0.014 | 0.153 | ||||||
The number of sports facilities | −0.119 | 0.057 | 0.058 | −0.076 | 0.069 | 0.288 | ||||||
The rate of commute by cars | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.157 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.449 | ||||||
Satisfaction on walking environment | −0.006 | 0.009 | 0.495 | −0.009 | 0.010 | 0.383 | ||||||
Food insecurity rate | 0.049 | 0.087 | 0.579 | 0.136 | 0.104 | 0.214 | ||||||
The number of fast food stores | 0.062 | 0.021 | 0.014 | 0.036 | 0.026 | 0.187 | ||||||
The number of fried chicken stores | −0.108 | 0.181 | 0.563 | 0.134 | 0.217 | 0.548 | ||||||
Urbanization rate | 0.069 | 0.050 | 0.193 | 0.045 | 0.060 | 0.466 | ||||||
Social trust | 0.086 | 0.070 | 0.242 | 0.018 | 0.083 | 0.829 | ||||||
Fiscal self-reliance ratio | 0.000 | 0.005 | 0.985 | −0.001 | 0.006 | 0.905 | ||||||
Crime rate | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.748 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.835 | ||||||
The number of beds | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.843 | −0.004 | 0.006 | 0.589 | ||||||
Random Effects | ||||||||||||
0.044 | 0.015 | 0.002 | 0.014 | 0.007 | 0.029 | 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.364 | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.342 |
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Kim, J.; Shon, C.; Yi, S. The Relationship between Obesity and Urban Environment in Seoul. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080898
Kim J, Shon C, Yi S. The Relationship between Obesity and Urban Environment in Seoul. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(8):898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080898
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Jungah, Changwoo Shon, and Seonju Yi. 2017. "The Relationship between Obesity and Urban Environment in Seoul" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 8: 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080898