Healing Together: A Narrative Review on How Psychiatric Treatment for Parental Depression Impacts Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Eligibility Criteria
2.2. Data Sources and Search Strategy
2.3. Screening
2.4. Data Summary and Synthesis
3. Results
3.1. Psychotherapy
Intervention | Type of Study | Inclusion Criteria | Sample Size | Outcome Measures | Summary of Major Results | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Letourneau N. et al., 2017 [11] | IPT, CBT, peer support, maternal–child interaction guidance, CPP, infant massage, non-directive counseling combined with antidepressant medication. | Systematic review |
| >5000 women | Child development, parental behaviors, maternal–child interaction/attachment. | CPP
|
Aschbacher et al., 2022 [12] | Child–parent psychotherapy (CPP). | RCT | Biological mothers, aged 18 and over, with children between 2 and 6 years of age, who had been exposed to interpersonal trauma, and were fluent in English and/or Spanish. | 43 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
| Decreased depression (p < 0.001, d = −0.84) and PTSD (p < 0.001, d = −0.83) symptoms in mothers. Decreased depression (p < 0.01, d = −0.53) and PTSD (p < 0.01, d = −0.51) symptoms in children. |
Cuijpers et al., 2015 [10] | Psychotherapy for depressed mothers (CBT, IPT, counseling, psychodynamic therapy). | Meta-analysis of RCTs |
| 553 |
|
|
Novick et al., 2022 [14] | Cognitive behavioral therapy added to behavioral parent training. | Q |
| 98 | Maternal:
| Adding CBT to behavioral parent training led to a significant increase in positive child-crediting attributions (p = 0.01), though without significant changes to child-blaming attributions or maternal expectations regarding child compliance. |
Milgrom et al., 2019 [16] | CBT (five years post-intervention). | RCT follow-up | Women < 30 weeks pregnant with a depressive disorder at recruitment. | 25 women | Maternal:
| At 2 years post-intervention:
|
Coiro et al., 2012 [9] | CBT and medication. | RCT | Low-income women with major depression and their children ages 4 to 11. | 60 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
|
|
Loughnan S. et al., 2019 [17] | 3-session standalone Internet CBT program for postpartum depression. | RCT | Women >18 within 12 months postpartum, meeting clinical criteria for anxiety and/or depression. | 79 total participants | Maternal:
|
|
Beeber et al., 2013 [18] | IPT+ depression-specific parenting enhancement. | RCT | Mothers and their infants enrolled in an Early Head Start program. | 226 mother–infant dyads | Maternal:
| Relationship-building and engagement strategies, no matter whether these were developed through IPT versus supportive treatment, mitigated depressive symptoms in mothers (p < 0.0001). |
Swartz et al., 2018 [20] | IPT-MOMS. | RCT | Mothers with depression aged 18–65 of children with at least one internalizing disorder aged 7–18. | 62 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
|
|
3.2. Psychopharmacology
Intervention | Type of Study | Inclusion Criteria | Sample Size | Outcome Measures | Summary of Major Results | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weissman et al., 2006 [6] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT (part of the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression, or STAR*D trial). | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 25–60 years with at least one child aged 7–17 in the home at least 50% of the time. | 151 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
| The remission rate of maternal depression after three months of medication treatment was significantly associated with the following:
|
Foster et al., 2008 [21] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT (part of the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression, or STAR*D trial). | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 25–60 years with at least one child aged 7–17 in the home at least 50% of the time. | 151 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
| Increased maternal expression of warmth and acceptance were associated with a decrease in children’s internalizing symptoms (p = 0.000). |
Pilowsky et al., 2008 [22] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT (part of the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression, or STAR*D trial). | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 25–60 years with at least one child aged 7–17 in the home at least 50% of the time. | 151 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
| Remission of mother’s depression (both early and late) is associated with improved functioning (early remitters, p = 0.006; late remitters, p = 0.001) and decreased psychiatric symptoms in their children (child-reported symptoms: early remitters, p = 0.0001; late remitters, p = 0.03. Mother-reported child symptoms: early remitters, p = 0.02; late remitters, p = 0.0005). |
Wickramaratne et al., 2011 [24] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT (part of the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression, or STAR*D trial). | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 25–60 years with at least one child aged 7–17 in the home at least 50% of the time. | 151 mother–child dyads | Maternal:
| During the year that followed remission, the children of mothers with remission (early or late), were found to have the following:
Children’s overall functioning was significantly improved only in those whose mothers had early remission (p < 0.01). |
Weissman et al., 2014 [25] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT, followed by an open trial. | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 18–65 years and children 7–17 years. | 76 treated mothers and their 135 children | Maternal:
| Remission of maternal depression was associated with a decrease in their children’s depressive symptoms on the CDI (p < 0.0001) and a relapse of depression in mothers was associated with an increase (p = 0.11). Maternal remission was significantly associated with improvement between mother and child related to the following:
|
Weissman et al., 2015 [26] | Antidepressant treatment of depressed mothers. | RCT, followed by an open trial. | Nonpsychotic depressed mothers aged 18–65 years and children 7–17 years. | 76 treated mothers and their 135 children | Maternal:
| There were statistically significant differences in child outcomes based on medication choices in this study; however, due to the scope of this review, those findings are not shared here. However, readers are encouraged to review the original article as changes in children’s symptomatology and functioning did differ based on antidepressant choice; thus, these findings may warrant further clinical consideration when implementing best practices in supporting mothers to remission. |
3.3. What about Dad? Paternal Mental Health and Childhood Outcomes
Intervention | Type of Study | Inclusion Criteria | Sample Size | Outcome Measures | Summary of Major Results | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wang et al., 2021 [35] | N/A | Systematic review and meta-analysis. | Original observational studies, in English with quantitative measures. | 37 studies in systematic review, 17 studies in meta-analysis | Multiple measures, but the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Screening (EPDS) rating being the most common by far used to assay the association between studied variables and paternal postpartum depressive symptoms. | Six paternal factors were statistically significantly associated with paternal postpartum depression, as well as three maternal or family factors. |
Wickersham et al., 2020 [34] | N/A | Systematic review. | English studies since 2000 assaying the relationship between paternal depression and adolescent depression or anxiety with validated measures. | 14 studies | Variety of validated measures. | Paternal depression showed the strongest and most consistent correlation with adolescents’ internalizing symptoms, particularly adolescent depression. |
Fisher et al., 2012 [33] | N/A | Validation. | Mothers and fathers, cohabitating, shared custody, >18 years old, recruited during early postpartum. | 199 couples |
| EPDS-P reliable and valid measure of paternal depression. |
Kane and Garber, 2009 [31] | N/A | Regression analysis of high-risk family sample. | Fathers, largely White and middle-class. | 81 fathers (68 biological, 13 step) and their children | Paternal:
| Paternal depression correlated with child externalizing symptoms (r = 0.23) even accounting for maternal depression; father–child conflict mediated this link for externalizing behaviors (r = 0.57). |
Ramchandani et al., 2008 [30] | N/A | Prospective population cohort. | Fathers in the UK. | 10,975 fathers and their children | Paternal:
| Paternal depression gave 1.72 OR for psychiatric outcomes in children after adjustment for maternal depression and paternal education. |
Van den Berg et al., 2009 [29] | N/A | Prospective population cohort. | Mothers and fathers at 20 weeks of pregnancy. | 5463 fathers | Brief Symptom Inventory, depression subscale. | 1.29 increased relative risk of excessive infant crying for every Standard Deviation increase in paternal depression, accounting for confounders including maternal depression. |
Paulson and Bazemore, 2010 [28] | N/A | Meta-analysis. | Studies measuring peripartum paternal depression prevalence in 1980–2009. | 43 studies, total n = 28,004 | Number of cases of paternal depression per total study population. | Meta-estimate of paternal peripartum depression prevalence 10.4%; moderate correlation with maternal depression. |
Sweeney and MacBeth, 2016 [27] | N/A | Systematic review. | Studies with measures of paternal depression and childhood (<22 years old), internalizing and/or externalizing symptoms. | 21 studies met criteria | Internalizing and externalizing behaviors measured with validated tools. | Paternal depression correlates with negative childhood outcomes, mediators identified. |
Hamil et al., 2021 [36] | Fathers and Babies Home Intervention. | Feasibility pilot study of intervention. | Fathers already enrolled in home visiting programs, at least 18 years old, co-parenting, and English-speaking. | 30 fathers | Post-intervention surveys on feasibility and utility. | The pilot program was very well received, feasible, and acceptable, and showed evidence of effectiveness based on the initial focus groups and survey responses. |
Kavanagh et al., 2021 [37] | Digital app-based parenting intervention. The app included modules on caring for babies, role changes, self-care, and supporting one’s partner. | Randomized controlled trial. | Co-parenting couples at least 18 years old, expecting their first child, English-speaking, with Internet access. | 388 fathers |
|
|
O’Brien et al., 2016 [38] | CBT. | Integrative review. | English articles discussing treatment of paternal perinatal depression. | 12 studies | N/A | Little evidence exists examining the efficacy of CBT in paternal perinatal depression treatment. |
3.4. Parenting Interventions
3.4.1. Effect of Parental Depression on the Success of Parenting Interventions
3.4.2. Promising Parenting Interventions for Parents with Depression
3.4.3. Parenting Interventions as Prevention and Treatment for Parental Depression or Stress
3.4.4. Summary
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations of the Papers Reviewed
4.2. Limitations of This Review
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- exp Parents/(138,580)
- exp Parenting/(127,915)
- exp Parent Child Relations/(76,564)
- (parent* or mother* or father*).ti,ab. (408,696)
- 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 (430,981)
- treatment/(84,172)
- (intervention* or treatment* or therap* or psychotherap*).ti,ab. (1,284,978)
- 6 or 7 (1,291,957)
- 5 and 8 (118,310)
- exp Child Health/(1301)
- (child* adj2 (health or wellbeing or “well-being” or “well being” or outcome? or assess* or effect*)).ti,ab. (63,207)
- 10 or 11 (63,888)
- 9 and 12 (11,269)
- 9 and 10 (246)
- from 14 keep 6 (1)
- postpartum depression.mp. or exp Postpartum Depression/(7179)
- major depression.mp. or exp Major Depression/(169,301)
- “major depressive disorder?”.ti,ab. (25,906)
- bipolar.mp. or exp Bipolar Disorder/(56,250)
- exp Posttraumatic Stress Disorder/(40,855)
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.ti,ab. (29,162)
- exp Anxiety Disorders/or anxiety.mp. (299,508)
- exp Obsessive Compulsive Disorder/(18,667)
- “Obsessive Compulsive Disorder”.ti,ab. (16,922)
- exp Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/(30,383)
- “Attention Deficit Disorder”.ti,ab. (2294)
- exp Schizophrenia/or schizophrenia.mp. (146,961)
- 16 or 17 or 18 or 19 or 20 or 21 or 22 or 23 or 24 or 25 or 26 or 27 (650,348)
- 13 and 28 (2506)
- 14 and 28 (45)
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Intervention | Type of Study | Inclusion Criteria | Sample Size | Outcome Measures | Summary of Major Results | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
van Loon et al., 2011 [42] | SNAP (Stop Now and Plan); a 14-week combined group-based parent management training and group-based child-focused CBT intervention. | Longitudinal. | Children aged 6–12 and their mothers. Children included lived with their mothers, scored in the 98th percentile of the externalizing subscale of the CBCL, and were without developmental delay. | 101 mother–child dyads | Parent:
|
|
Compas et al., 2009 [43] | Family group-based cognitive behavioral intervention. | Randomized controlled trial. | Parents with current or past major depressive disorder during their child’s lifetime, and their children aged 9–15 years old. Multiple children within each family were included. | 111 families consisting of 95 mothers, 16 fathers, and 155 children | Parent:
| Significant reductions in CES-D (d = 0.42, p < 0.01), YSR anxiety/depression (d = 0.5, p < 0.01), YSR internalizing (d = 0.57, p < 0.01), and parent BDI-II (d = 0.26, p < 0.05) at 12 months post-initiation of the intervention. |
Compas et al., 2010 [41] | Family group-based cognitive behavioral intervention | Follow-up to RCT. | Parents with current or past major depressive disorder during their child’s lifetime, and their children aged 9–15 years old. If multiple children in one family were included in the original study, one child randomly selected to represent each family. | 111 families consisting of 95 mothers, 16 fathers, and 111 children | Parent:
|
|
McCabe et al., 2022 [40] | Culturally modified versions of PCIT. | Combined data from two clinical trials of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). | Families included had children with clinically significant behavior problems as measured by a caregiver on the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) Intensity Scale and did not have a diagnosis of autism, intellectual disability, or psychosis. | 72 families with 2–7-year-old children | Parent:
|
|
Novick et al., 2022 [14] | Integrated parenting intervention that combines behavioral parent training (BPT) and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). | RCT. | Mothers with at least mild depressive symptoms (10 or greater on BDI-II) and their biological children ages 6–12 who met DSM-IV criteria for ADHD. | 98 mother–child dyads | Child:
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Jugovac et al., 2022 [39] | Attachment- and Emotion-Focused (AE) parenting interventions. | Systematic review and meta-analysis. | AE studies that measured an externalizing and/or internalizing child outcome were included (not specific to studies of parents with depression). | 43 studies (54 articles) were included in this review, including 3 quasi-experimental studies, all others were RCTs. Studies included 5542 children ages 0 to 18 years and their caregivers |
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Muzik et al., 2015 [44] and Rosenblum et al., 2017 [45] | Mom Power: 13-session parenting and self-care skills group program. | Pilot trial (Muzik et al., 2015) [44]. Community based RCT (Rosenblum et al., 2017) [45]. | High-risk mothers (e.g., trauma exposure, poverty, mental health problems) and their young children (<6 years old). | 99 mother–child pairs initially recruited (pilot study) 122 high-risk mothers and their young children (RCT) |
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Buultjens et al., 2021 [46] | Group pregnancy care. | Systematic review. | RCTs and observational studies studying group pregnancy care with standard pregnancy care. | Nine studies including five RCTs and four observational studies | Maternal:
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Pathak et al., 2023 [47] | Kangaroo care, which includes continuous skin-to-skin contact with the mother and support for breastfeeding only. | Meta-analysis. | RCTs or quasi-RCTs comparing kangaroo mother care to no kangaroo care for preterm or low-birth-weight infants. | 30 studies including 7719 preterm or low-birth-weight infants | Maternal mental health, mother–infant attachment and bonding, and paternal mental health outcome measures. |
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Holt et al., 2021 [48] | Four-session group-based intervention that targeted the mother–infant relationship (HUGS); both intervention and control groups followed CBT treatment for postnatal depression. | RCT. | Mothers (aged 18 years or older) diagnosed with major or minor depression using the SCID and their infants (<12 months). Mothers could not be in treatment for depression (medication or therapy). | 77 mother–infant dyads |
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Cross, M.; Abdul-Karim, Y.; Johnson, A.; Victor, C.; Rosenfeld, A. Healing Together: A Narrative Review on How Psychiatric Treatment for Parental Depression Impacts Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 367. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21030367
Cross M, Abdul-Karim Y, Johnson A, Victor C, Rosenfeld A. Healing Together: A Narrative Review on How Psychiatric Treatment for Parental Depression Impacts Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(3):367. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21030367
Chicago/Turabian StyleCross, Michelle, Yasmeen Abdul-Karim, Amy Johnson, Colleen Victor, and Andrew Rosenfeld. 2024. "Healing Together: A Narrative Review on How Psychiatric Treatment for Parental Depression Impacts Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 3: 367. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21030367