Mangrove Health: A Review of Functions, Threats, and Challenges Associated with Mangrove Management Practices
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biotic Communities Associated with Mangroves
2.1. Habitat for Local Communities
2.2. Mangroves Association with Corals and Seagrass
2.3. Reservoir of Microbial Communities
3. Mangrove Ecosystem and Economic Functions and Services
3.1. Carbon Sink
3.2. Natural Water Filters
3.3. Barriers to Natural Disasters
3.4. Livelihood Opportunities for Coastal Communities
3.4.1. Aquaculture
3.4.2. Fodder, Timber and Traditional Medicines
3.4.3. Ecotourism
4. Major Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems
4.1. Severe Threats
4.1.1. Coastal Development Leading to Degradation
4.1.2. Expansion of Aquaculture/Agriculture Leading to Over-Exploitation of Mangrove Forests
4.1.3. Deforestation for Acquisition of Timber
4.2. Moderate Threats
4.2.1. Climate Change
4.2.2. Eutrophication
4.2.3. Altered Hydrological Flow
4.3. Low Level Threats
4.3.1. Diseases
4.3.2. Tourism
4.3.3. Pollution
5. Challenges for Mangrove Management
5.1. Land-Use Conflicts
5.2. Low Stringency in Regulatory Action
5.3. Inadequate Policy and Government Frameworks
6. Strategies for Mitigating Mangrove Loss by Augmenting Resistance and Resilience to Threats
6.1. Smart Land Use Planning
6.2. Managed Catchment Based Activities
6.3. An Integrated Regional Monitoring Network to Access Impact of Climate Change
6.4. Mangroves Restoration/Reforestation
6.5. Community Education and Outreach
7. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group | Common Name | Genus/Species | References |
---|---|---|---|
Sponges | Common Mangrove Sponge | Tedania sp. Mycale sp. Dysidea sp. Haliclona sp. | [46] |
Worms | Segmented worms | Sabellastarte sp. | [47] |
Insects | Ant | Polyrachis bicolor sp. | [48] |
Weevils | Rhynchites sp. | [49] | |
Bettles | Monolepta sp. | [50] | |
Crustaceans | Crabs | Ilyogynis microcheirum Portunus pelagicus Uca sp. Hippidea sp. | [51,52] |
Prawns | Penaeus monodon Exopalaemon styliferus Metapenaeus affinis Parapenaeopsis sculptilis | [53,54] | |
Barnacles | Balanus sp. Euraphia sp. Tetraclita sp. | [55,56] | |
Mollusks | Oyster | Crassostrea sp. | [57] |
Clam | Tridacna derasa Tridacna maxima nodontia edentula | [58,59,60] | |
Sea slug/sea hares | Dolobella sp. | [61] | |
Venus clam | Bursa sp. Paphia amabilis Venus clam Paphia Haliotis asinina Tectus pyramis Echininus cumingii Terebralia sulcata Rhinoclavis sinensis Rhinoclavis vertegus Ficus gracilis Plicacularia pullus Fasciolaria trapezium Oliva reticulata Mitra mitra Trisodos tortuosa Anadara maculosa Chicoreus brunneus | [62,63,64,65,66] | |
Echinoderms | Sea urchin | Protoreaster sp. Archaster sp. Linckia sp. Clypeaster sp. Cerithium sp. Tripneustes sp. Holothuria sp. Oreaster albeolatus Ophiarachna incrasala Echinocardium cordatum Diadema setosum Laganum laganum Echinometra mathaei | [62,67,68,69] |
Star fish | Astropecten sp. Protoreaster nodosus Linkia laevigata | [69,70] | |
Feather star | Comanthina bennetti Comanthina schlegeli | [71] | |
Sea star | Luidia sp. Culcita novaeguineae | [72] | |
Tunicates | Sea squirt | Didemnum molle Atriolum robustum Polycarpa aurata Rhopalea sp. | [73] |
Fishes | Rabbitfish | Siganid sp. | [74] |
Mudskipper | Periophthalmodon Periophthalmus | [74] | |
Spot-tail needlefish | Strongylura strongylura | [75] | |
Amphibians | Mangrove frog | Fejervarya cancrivora Rana cancrivora | [76] |
Reptiles | Snake | Cerberus rhybchos | [62] |
Lizard | Tupinambis indicus | [77] | |
Crocodiles | Crocodylus porosus | [78] | |
Birds | Eagles | Haliastur indus Pitta megarhyncha | [79,80] |
Kingfishers | Halcyon senegaloides Todiramphus sordidus | [81] | |
Herons | Nycticorax nycticorax Egretta gularis | [82,83] | |
Plovers | Charadrius sp. Pluvialis sp. Thinornis sp. | [84,85] | |
Terns | Sterna paradisaea | [85] | |
Crow | Corvus splendens | [86] | |
Green pigeon | Treron olax | [86] | |
Egrets | Egretta garzetta Egretta immaculata Egretta nigripes | [87,88] | |
Mammals | Bats | Cynopterus brachyotis Acerodon jubatus | [89,90] |
Monkey | Nasalis larvatus | [91] | |
Dugong | Dugong dugon | [92] | |
Otters | Lutrinae sp. | [93] |
Group | Common Name | Genus/Species | References |
---|---|---|---|
Angiosperm | Seagrasses | Cymodocea sp. Thalassia sp. Halodule sp. Halophila sp. Enhalus sp. | [94,95] |
Orchids | Acampe sp. Agrostophyllum sp. Apotasi sp. Ascocentrum sp. Bulbophyllum sp. Ceratostylis sp. Cleisostoma sp. Cymbidium sp. Dendrobium sp. Flickingeria sp. Grosourdya sp. Habenaria sp. Liparis sp. Malaxis sp. Podochilus sp. Pomatocalpa sp. Thelasis sp. | [96,97,98,99,100] | |
Lilies | Crinum sp. Hymenocallis sp. Nymphaeaceae sp. Lycoris sp. | [101,102] | |
Vines | Cryptostegia grandiflora | [41] | |
Bryophytes | Ferns | Acrostichum sp. Waterhousea sp. | [103,104] |
Algae | Marine algae | Padina sp. Ulva sp. Ventricaria ventricosa | [105,106] |
Group | Phyla | Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Actinobacteria |
| [125] |
Chloroflexota |
| [113,114] | |
Asgardarchaeota |
| [126] | |
Bacteroidetes |
| [45] | |
Thermoproteota |
| [127] | |
Calditrichota |
| [128] | |
Bacillota |
| [129] | |
Thermodesulfobacteriota |
| [124] | |
Euryarchaeota |
| [113] | |
Firmicutes |
| [130,131] | |
Halobacterota |
| [132] | |
Nitrososphaerota |
| [127] | |
Nitrospirota |
| [122] | |
Planctomycetota |
| [133] | |
Pseudomonadota |
| [134,135] | |
Thaumarchaeota |
| [122] | |
Zixibacteria |
| [136] | |
Cyanobacteria | Cyanobacteriota |
| [137,138] |
Fungi | Ascomycota |
| [123,139] |
Basidiomycota |
| [140] |
Country | Total Species | Critically Endangered (CR) | Endangered (EN) | Vulnerable (VU) | Near Threatened (NT) | Data Deficient (DD) | Least Concern from All (LC) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indonesia | 47 | Sonneratia griffithii Bruguiera hainesii | Camptostemon philippinense Heritiera globose | Avicennia rumphiana | Aegialitis rotundifolia Aegiceras floridum Sonneratia ovata | Aglaia cucullata Excoecaria indica | Acrostichum speciosum Bruguiera gymnorhiza Pemphis acidula Acrostichum aureum Acrostichum danaeifolium Avicennia germinans Conocarpus erectus Laguncularia racemosa Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora racemosa Avicennia schaueriana Acanthus ebracteatus Acanthus ilicifolius Aegialitis annulata Aegiceras corniculatum Avicennia marina Bruguiera cylindrica Bruguiera exaristata Bruguiera parviflora Bruguiera sexangula Camptostemon schultzii Ceriops australis Ceriops tagal Cynometra iripa Dolichandrone spathacea Excoecaria agallocha Heritiera littoralis Lumnitzera littorea Lumnitzera racemosa Nypa fruticans Osbornia octodonta Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophora mucronata Rhizophora stylosa Scyphiphora hydrophylacea Sonneratia alba Sonneratia caseolaris Sonneratia lanceolata Xylocarpus granatum Xylocarpus moluccensis Avicennia alba Avicennia officinalis Kandelia candel Sonneratia apetala Kandelia obovate |
Malaysia | 40 | Bruguiera hainesii Sonneratia griffithii | Heritiera fomes Heritiera globose | Avicennia rumphiana | Aegiceras floridum Ceriops decandra Sonneratia ovata | Aglaia cucullata Excoecaria indica | |
India | 37 | Sonneratia griffithii | Heritiera fomes | Aegialitis rotundifolia Ceriops decandra | Aglaia cucullata Excoecaria indica | ||
Myanmar | 36 | Sonneratia griffithii | Heritiera fomes | Aegialitis rotundifolia Ceriops decandra | Aglaia cucullata Excoecaria indica | ||
Thailand | 35 | Sonneratia griffithii | Heritiera fomes | Aegialitis rotundifolia Ceriops decandra Sonneratia ovata | Aglaia cucullate | ||
Australia | 35 | Avicennia integra | Sonneratia ovata | ||||
Philippines | 34 | Camptostemon philippinense | Avicennia rumphiana | Aegiceras floridum Sonneratia ovata | Aglaia cucullate | ||
Vietnam | 33 | Aegiceras floridum Sonneratia ovata | |||||
Colombia | 12 | Avicennia bicolor Mora oleifera Pelliciera rhizophorae Tabebuia palustris | Rhizophora samoensis | ||||
Nigeria | 7 |
Threat/Challenge | Forecast Changes | Outcome | References |
---|---|---|---|
Rise in sea level | Sea levels may rise 1.5 to 2.5 m by 2099. |
| [242] |
Rise in temperature (air and water) | Temperatures may rise by 4 °C by the end of 21st century. |
| [249] |
Increased CO2 in atmosphere and oceanic acidification | The pH level of the oceans is gradually increasing, thereby making them more acidic. Consequently, CO2 level by the end of the century, may be double or triple that of today’s level. |
| [243,244] |
Changes in precipitation/storm patterns | The frequencies of storms and rainfall are projected to increase approximately 25% until 2050, and the intensity of storms andprecipitation will also be increased. |
| [250] |
Process/Activity | Impact | Contributors |
---|---|---|
Accentuate the importance of mangroves in carbon sequestration at national and international platforms that address climate change, as mangroves are less discussed in the international dialogues on carbon emission settlement eligibility of ecosystems in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [344]. | This would support the implementation of mangrove projects for the reduction of carbon emissions. This can have direct bearing on the implications of SDG 13, i.e., Climate Action. | United Nations, voluntary carbon markets traders from regional through national to global level. |
Develop the schemes for “Blue Carbon” (mangrove) under UNFCCC. The UNFCCC refers insignificantly to blue carbon ecosystems, which makes them unworthy to the carbon markets [345]. On the contrary, when it comes down to green carbon (terrestrial forests), there are well established market mechanisms focusing on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction owing to deforestation. Such tools need to be applied to mangrove ecosystems. | This would accelerate the investigations, designing, and development of more internationally coordinated procedures for mangroves carbon credits under blue carbon scheme and can directly contribute to SDG 13, i.e., Climate Action. | United Nations, voluntary carbon markets, traders from regional through national to global levels. |
Integrate mangrove management policies with legal systems that could provide accredited scenarios for effective mangrove management by ensuring proper legislation, regulation, and enforcement, and compliance by stakeholders from local through regional to national levels. | This would help to define entitlement to ownership, access, and the rights of use of mangrove forests. Moreover, this can enhance legal, financial, and technical capacity for effective mangrove management. Moreover, it can be in line with SDG 8, which is about Decent Work and Economic Growth. | National and international policymakers and law enforcement bodies, and other stakeholders and beneficiaries. |
Emphasise the intense socio-economic impacts of mangrove degradation on prevailing indigence in many rural coastal communities. This can be achieved by raising public awareness through extended outreach regarding the socio-economic importance of the mangroves and the implications of their loss. Global initiatives such as The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) will be helpful in this regard. | Healthy mangrove forests contribute to the food security of millions of people around the world. Information and exchange of existing knowledge on ecosystem services and functions, their economic valuation, and alternative mangrove management approaches would help build a stronger case for interventions. It would also help to refine existing management approaches/practices if the Sustainable Development Goals to eliminate extreme poverty (SDG 1) and end hunger (SDG 2) set by the United Nations (UN) are to be achieved. | Socio-economists and regional forestry departments, FAO, NGOs, and academia. |
Include the role of mangroves as a key factor in climate change adaptation in the national disaster risk reduction plans and action framework. The environmental impact assessment can be carried out during planning and installation of the artificial coastal defence systems in/or near mangrove forests. Evaluation of the risks posed to the mangroves and all associated ecosystem services and functions can be taken into account. Consideration should also be given to using mangroves alongside the built substructure as “hybrid engineering”, where mangroves alone may not be sufficient. | Such initiatives would encourage stakeholders to protect and restore mangroves as a part of natural coastal infrastructure. This would also signify mangroves for their roles in minimising vulnerability and increasing the resilience to climate change impacts. This can be related to SDG 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities and SDG 15 Life on Land. | Disaster risk reduction authorities and other voluntary groups, organisations such as the WHO, UN, etc. |
Introduce some economic incentives in terms of pollution taxes, subsidies, merchandise permits, and performance bonds. | This would instigate environmentally responsible behaviour among people and improve local livelihoods, which is in connection with SDG 8 regarding Economic Growth. If properly applied with a command and control strategy, this would lead to desirable outcomes such as mangrove restoration and enhancement. | Socio-economists, banking sector, ministry of finance, and public development. |
Promote the clean development mechanism (CDM) practices in provision of mangrove restoration and conservation. | This would encourage accounting for ongoing carbon sequestration and stock, which is one of the agenda of SDG 13, i.e., Climate Action. | United Nations, national and local governments, and NGOs. |
Encourage and finance the developing countries to reduce the loss of mangrove forests, restore areas, and/or establish new mangrove areas. The structure and protocol of REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, plus the sustainable management of forests, and the conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) supported by FAO could serve as a tool for the development of national and international financing mechanisms. | Since REDD agenda is to offset GHG emissions, counter deforestation, and forest degradation while generating revenue, which can also be used to incentivise the relevant stakeholders and also contribute to SDG 8, i.e., Decent Work and Economic Growth. | FAO, international and national governments, and environmental legislators. |
Organise community-based poverty reduction programmes in areas where mangrove restoration and management are practiced. Where suitable, alternatives to mangrove dependency for consumables in the local community must be introduced. | If applied appropriately, these attempts can be successful in enhancing the ecological settings of mangroves as well as the living status of local communities. Moreover, this would help to meet MDG 1 (Millennium Development Goal) to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. | Government, NGOs, and local bodies. |
Highlight the severity of mangrove biodiversity loss and degraded ecosystems through experts in the fields of economics, science, and technology. | Mangrove degradation has significant socio-economic impacts. This would inform policymakers to ramp up enterprises in mangrove management, restoration, and comprehensive cost-effective analysis prior to making policy decisions. | Environmental consultants, ministry of education and information technology, NGOs, and academia. |
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Akram, H.; Hussain, S.; Mazumdar, P.; Chua, K.O.; Butt, T.E.; Harikrishna, J.A. Mangrove Health: A Review of Functions, Threats, and Challenges Associated with Mangrove Management Practices. Forests 2023, 14, 1698. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091698
Akram H, Hussain S, Mazumdar P, Chua KO, Butt TE, Harikrishna JA. Mangrove Health: A Review of Functions, Threats, and Challenges Associated with Mangrove Management Practices. Forests. 2023; 14(9):1698. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091698
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkram, Hina, Shoaib Hussain, Purabi Mazumdar, Kah Ooi Chua, Talib E. Butt, and Jennifer Ann Harikrishna. 2023. "Mangrove Health: A Review of Functions, Threats, and Challenges Associated with Mangrove Management Practices" Forests 14, no. 9: 1698. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091698