An Assessment of a Community-Based, Forest Restoration Programme in Durban (eThekwini), South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. Vegetation Composition and Structure
2.2.2. Invasive Alien Plants
2.2.3. Ecological Processes
2.3. Data Analysis
2.3.1. Species Richness and Diversity
2.3.2. Species Composition and Abundance
2.3.3. Vegetation Structure and Litter Accumulation
2.3.4. Pollination and Seed Dispersal
2.3.5. Plant Regeneration
3. Results
3.1. Plant Species Richness and Diversity
3.2. Species Abundance and Composition
3.3. Vegetation Structure
3.4. Invasive Alien Plants
3.5. Ecological Processes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Upland Area | ||||||
Habitat | Diversity Indices | Tree Successional Type | ||||
Species Richness | Simpson’s Evenness | Simpson’s Diversity | Pioneer | Understorey | Climax | |
0-year-old | 11.3 ± 1.86ab | 0.87 ± 0.03a | 2.9 ± 0.47ab | 0.59 ± 0.05a | 0.17 ± 0.05ab | 0.27 ± 0.03a |
3-year-old | 8.6 ± 3.55b | 0.83 ± 0.04ab | 1.9 ± 0.85b | 0.54 ± 0.20a | 0.05 ± 0.06a | 0.40 ± 0.22ab |
5-year-old | 10.1 ± 4.16ab | 0.78 ± 0.07b | 2.2 ± 0.85b | 0.51 ± 0.12a | 0.15 ± 0.09ab | 0.32 ± 0.10ab |
Reference | 14.1 ± 2.85a | 0.84 ± 0.06ab | 3.7 ± 0.56a | 0.26 ± 0.11b | 0.23 ± 0.13b | 0.50 ± 0.09b |
Lowland Area | ||||||
Habitat | Species Richness | Simpson’s Evenness | Simpson’s Diversity | Pioneer | Understorey | Climax |
0-year-old | 6.0 ± 0.89a | 0.90 ± 0.02a | 1.4 ± 0.26a | 0.53 ± 0.08a | 0.18 ± 0.02a | 0.27 ± 0.10a |
3-year-old | 12.6 ± 2.58b | 0.80 ± 0.06b | 2.8 ± 0.57b | 0.63 ± 0.09a | 0.11 ± 0.07a | 0.25 ± 0.08a |
5-year-old | 11.3 ± 3.26b | 0.89 ± 0.04a | 2.7 ± 0.72b | 0.57 ± 0.10a | 0.16 ± 0.07a | 0.25 ± 0.04a |
Reference | 11.16 ± 3.18b | 0.87 ± 0.05ab | 2.8 ± 0.60b | 0.59 ± 0.33a | 0.07 ± 0.04a | 0.32 ± 0.27a |
Upland Area | |||||||
Habitat | Vegetation Structure | Litter Accumulation | |||||
TD (#) | TH (m) | TCC (%) | HLC (%) | IAPsC (%) | LLC (%) | LD (cm) | |
0-year-old | 34.1 ± 7.02a | 0.52 ± 0.06a | 5.0 ± 0.00a | 60.8 ± 8.7a | 5.2 ± 3.68a | 19.5 ± 13.82a | 0.35 ± 0.22b |
3-year-old | 51.8 ± 8.79a | 1.5 ± 0.41b | 20.8 ± 9.17b | 68.7 ± 21.73a | 14.4 ± 3.29a | 42.08 ± 30.52b | 0.49 ± 0.36b |
5-year-old | 53.8 ± 25.34a | 2.0 ± 0.47b | 45.04.47c | 70.8 ± 25.8a | 40.7 ± 21.97b | 40.83 ± 32.97b | 0.47 ± 0.21b |
Reference | 34.3 ± 12.59a | 12.8 ± 4.75c | 79.1 ± 11.58d | 60.3 ± 11.96a | 8.1 ± 5.74a | 93.75 ± 7.02c | 1.14 ± 0.32a |
Lowland Area | |||||||
Habitat | TD (#) | TH (m) | TCC (%) | HLC (%) | IAPsC (%) | LLC (%) | LD (cm) |
0-year-old | 31.3 ± 7.08a | 0.38 ± 0.06a | 5.0 ± 0.00a | 78.7 ± 10.62a | 3.8 ± 0.95a | 62.5 ± 37.40a | 0.72 ± 0.56ab |
3-year-old | 58.1 ± 17.73b | 1.9 ± 0.28b | 27.5 ± 5.24b | 78.9 ± 15.27a | 20.0 ± 18.6ab | 68.9 ± 27.00a | 0.84 ± 0.29ab |
5-year-old | 43.6 ± 10.25a | 2.1 ± 0.23b | 50.0 ± 4.47c | 63.7 ± 19.03ab | 33.7 ± 25.46b | 68.5 ± 21.58a | 0.52 ± 0.19b |
Reference | 37.1 ± 16.79a | 9.8 ± 3.37c | 88.3 ± 9.3d | 45.0 ± 11.58b | 2.5 ± 2.23a | 98.3 ± 2.17b | 1.22 ± 0.64a |
Upland Area | |||||||||||
Habitat | Pollination Categories | Seed Dispersal Categories | |||||||||
Bee | Beetle | Bird | Butterfly | Fly | ‘Other’ | Ballistic | Bird | Mammal | Wind | ‘Other’ | |
0-year-old | 0.40 ± 0.15ab | 0.06 ± 0.02a | 0.29 ± 0.06a | 0.02 ± 0.01a | 0.35 ± 0.08ab | 0.30 ± 0.11a | 0.15 ± 0.07a | 0.40 ± 0.20a | 0.24 ± 0.18ab | 0.35 ± 0.16a | 0.13 ± 0.02a |
3-year-old | 0.37 ± 0.20ab | 0.07 ± 0.02a | 0.20 ± 0.15ab | 0.02 ± 0.01a | 0.36 ± 0.14ab | 0.35 ± 0.16a | 0.12 ± 0.10a | 0.55 ± 0.35a | 0.35 ± 0.07ab | 0.28 ± 0.06a | 0.04 ± 0.01a |
5-year-old | 0.26 ± 0.02b | 0.09 ± 0.04a | 0.29 ± 0.10a | 0.03 ± 0.01a | 0.54 ± 0.14a | 0.25 ± 0.18a | 0.20 ± 0.04a | 0.44 ± 0.26a | 0.17 ± 0.13b | 0.31 ± 0.11a | 0.08 ± 0.03a |
Reference | 0.54 ± 0.04a | 0.07 ± 0.02a | 0.13 ± 0.05b | 0.06 ± 0.01a | 0.30 ± 0.16b | 0.27 ± 0.12a | 0.13 ± 0.1a | 0.55 ± 0.18a | 0.43 ± 0.13a | 0.25 ± 0.14a | 0.11 ± 0.09a |
Lowland Area | |||||||||||
Habitat | Bee | Beetle | Bird | Butterfly | Fly | ‘Other’ | Ballistic | Bird | Mammal | Wind | ‘Other’ |
0-year-old | 0.58 ± 0.14a | 0.15 ± 0.11a | 0.04 ± 0.01a | 0.01 ± 0.00a | 0.33 ± 0.14ab | 0.13 ± 0.05a | 0.01 ± 0.00a | 0.66 ± 0.17a | 0.58 ± 0.20a | 0.17 ± 0.13a | 0.02 ± 0.01a |
3-year-old | 0.39 ± 0.11bc | 0.08 ± 0.01a | 0.28 ± 0.18b | 0.04 ± 0.03b | 0.40 ± 0.08b | 0.24 ± 0.11ab | 0.16 ± 0.11ab | 0.59 ± 0.07ab | 0.24 ± 0.11b | 0.30 ± 0.06a | 0.08 ± 0.05a |
5-year-old | 0.32 ± 0.10c | 0.15 ± 0.03a | 0.31 ± 0.03b | 0.06 ± 0.04b | 0.40 ± 0.13b | 0.27 ± 0.08ab | 0.24 ± 0.15b | 0.35 ± 0.13b | 0.24 ± 0.18b | 0.31 ± 0.03a | 0.09 ± 0.06a |
Reference | 0.53 ± 0.10ab | 0.07 ± 0.08a | 0.04 ± 0.01a | 0.06 ± 0.02b | 0.22 ± 0.04a | 0.31 ± 0.10b | 0.28 ± 0.10b | 0.38 ± 0.26b | 0.28 ± 0.18b | 0.30 ± 0.10a | 0.03 ± 0.01a |
Plant Species | Dispersal Category | Seedling Density | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Upland | Lowland | ||||||||
0-Year-Old | 3-Year-Old | 5-Year-Old | Reference | 0-Year-Old | 3-Year-Old | 5-Year-Old | Reference | ||
Albizia adianthifolia | Gravity | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.83 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.66 |
Brachylaena discolour | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.67 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Bridelia micrantha | Birds | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.33 |
Canthium inerme | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 |
Celtis africana | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.67 |
Clausena anisata | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Clerodendrum glabrum | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Combretum molle | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.83 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Croton sylvaticus | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 |
Cryptocarya woodii | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Dalbergia armata | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.83 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 5.67 |
Dalbergia obovata | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8.67 | 0 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 1.16 |
Diospyros lycioides | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0.67 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Diospyros scabrida | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.00 |
Erythrina sp. | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0 |
Euclea natalensis subsp. rotundifolia | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Gymnosporia buxifolia | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.50 |
Harpephyllum caffrum | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 |
Heteropyxis natalensis | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Kraussia floribunda | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 1.50 | 0 | 0 | 0.67 | 0.50 |
Macaranga capensis | Birds/Ballistic | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 |
Manilkara discolor | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3.67 |
Phoenix reclinata | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 |
Protorhus longifolia | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Rauvolfia caffra | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 |
Rhoicissus tomentosa | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.83 |
Schrebera alata | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.33 |
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra | Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 |
Sclerocroton integerrimus | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Searsia lucida | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 |
Searsia chirindensis | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 |
Searsia dentata | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.83 | 0 |
Searsia rehmanniana | Birds | 0.33 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
Searsia pentheri | Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Senegalia caffra | Ballistic | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Strychnos mitis | Birds/ Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 |
Tabernaemontana ventricosa | Birds/ Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3.66 |
Tecomaria capensis | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.83 | 0 |
Trema orientalis | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 | 0 | 0.17 |
Trichilia emetica | Birds/Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.83 |
Vachellia natalitia | Wind | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.17 | 0 |
Vangueria infausta | Mammals | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Zanthoxylum capense | Birds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.00 |
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Mugwedi, L.F.; Rouget, M.; Egoh, B.; Sershen; Ramdhani, S.; Slotow, R.; Rentería, J.L. An Assessment of a Community-Based, Forest Restoration Programme in Durban (eThekwini), South Africa. Forests 2017, 8, 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8080255
Mugwedi LF, Rouget M, Egoh B, Sershen, Ramdhani S, Slotow R, Rentería JL. An Assessment of a Community-Based, Forest Restoration Programme in Durban (eThekwini), South Africa. Forests. 2017; 8(8):255. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8080255
Chicago/Turabian StyleMugwedi, Lutendo F., Mathieu Rouget, Benis Egoh, Sershen, Syd Ramdhani, Rob Slotow, and Jorge L. Rentería. 2017. "An Assessment of a Community-Based, Forest Restoration Programme in Durban (eThekwini), South Africa" Forests 8, no. 8: 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8080255