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Pharmaceutics, Volume 9, Issue 1 (March 2017) – 11 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Doxorubicin was effectively delivered by pH and redox dual responsive hollow nanocapsules which were prepared by stabilizing polyamidoamine dendron-poly(L-lysine) (PAMAM dendron-PLL) vesicles through the introduction of disulfide bonds between PLLs. PAMAM dendron, cross-linked PLL membrane and disulfide bond in the nanocapsules can provide a buffering effect for endosomal escape, an electrostatic barrier for doxorubicin entrapment and redox-responsive release by destabilizing nanocapsules, respectively. Eventually, the doxorubicin delivered into the cytoplasm could exhibit an effective anticancer effect on HeLa cells. View the paper.
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900 KiB  
Article
A Robust Liquid Chromatographic Method for Confirmation of Drug Stability of Azithromycin in Bulk Samples, Tablets and Suspensions
by Alex O. Okaru, Kennedy O. Abuga, Franco N. Kamau, Stanley N. Ndwigah and Dirk W. Lachenmeier
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010011 - 24 Feb 2017
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6573
Abstract
A simple, isocratic and robust RP-HPLC method for the analysis of azithromycin was developed, validated and applied for the analysis of bulk samples, tablets and suspensions. The optimum chromatographic conditions for separation were established as a mobile phase comprised of acetonitrile-0.1 M KH [...] Read more.
A simple, isocratic and robust RP-HPLC method for the analysis of azithromycin was developed, validated and applied for the analysis of bulk samples, tablets and suspensions. The optimum chromatographic conditions for separation were established as a mobile phase comprised of acetonitrile-0.1 M KH2PO4 pH 6.5–0.1 M tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide pH 6.5-water (25:15:1:59 v/v/v/v) delivered at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The stationary phase consisted of reverse-phase XTerra® (250 mm × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 µm particle size) maintained at a temperature of 43 °C with a UV detection at 215 nm. The method was found to be linear in the range 50%–150% (r2 = 0.997). The limits of detection and quantification were found to be 0.02% (20 µg) and 0.078% (78 µg), respectively, with a 100.7% recovery of azithromycin. Degradation products of azithromycin in acidic and oxidative environments at 37 °C were resolved from the active pharmaceutical ingredient and thus the method is fit for the purpose of drug stability confirmation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Stability)
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206 KiB  
Review
Polypharmacy in Zoological Medicine
by Robert P. Hunter and Ramiro Isaza
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010010 - 22 Feb 2017
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5315
Abstract
Polypharmacy is a term that describes the inappropriate, concurrent use of multiple drugs in an individual patient. Zoological medicine practitioners must take approved agents (veterinary or human) and extrapolate their use to non-approved species often with little species-specific pharmacological evidence to support their [...] Read more.
Polypharmacy is a term that describes the inappropriate, concurrent use of multiple drugs in an individual patient. Zoological medicine practitioners must take approved agents (veterinary or human) and extrapolate their use to non-approved species often with little species-specific pharmacological evidence to support their decisions. When considering polypharmacy, even less information exists concerning multi-drug pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, or potential drug-drug interactions in non-domestic species. Unfortunately, captive, zoological species are susceptible, just like their domestic counterparts, to chronic diseases and co-morbidities that may lead to the usage of multiple drugs. Polypharmacy is a recognized and important issue in human medicine, as well as an emerging issue for veterinarians; thus, this paper will discuss the novel, potential risks of polypharmacy in zoological medicine. Hopefully, this discussion will help bring the attention of veterinarians to this issue and serve as an interesting discussion topic for pharmacologists in general. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Medicine)
2721 KiB  
Review
Clinical Implications of 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acid in the Kidney, Liver, Lung and Brain: An Emerging Therapeutic Target
by Osama H. Elshenawy, Sherif M. Shoieb, Anwar Mohamed and Ayman O.S. El-Kadi
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010009 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7202
Abstract
Cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of arachidonic acid (AA) is an important pathway for the formation of eicosanoids. The ω-hydroxylation of AA generates significant levels of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) in various tissues. In the current review, we discussed the role of 20-HETE in the kidney, [...] Read more.
Cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of arachidonic acid (AA) is an important pathway for the formation of eicosanoids. The ω-hydroxylation of AA generates significant levels of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) in various tissues. In the current review, we discussed the role of 20-HETE in the kidney, liver, lung, and brain during physiological and pathophysiological states. Moreover, we discussed the role of 20-HETE in tumor formation, metabolic syndrome and diabetes. In the kidney, 20-HETE is involved in modulation of preglomerular vascular tone and tubular ion transport. Furthermore, 20-HETE is involved in renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury and polycystic kidney diseases. The role of 20-HETE in the liver is not clearly understood although it represents 50%–75% of liver CYP-dependent AA metabolism, and it is associated with liver cirrhotic ascites. In the respiratory system, 20-HETE plays a role in pulmonary cell survival, pulmonary vascular tone and tone of the airways. As for the brain, 20-HETE is involved in cerebral I/R injury. Moreover, 20-HETE has angiogenic and mitogenic properties and thus helps in tumor promotion. Several inhibitors and inducers of the synthesis of 20-HETE as well as 20-HETE analogues and antagonists are recently available and could be promising therapeutic options for the treatment of many disease states in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism in Canada: The Current Landscape)
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1452 KiB  
Article
Lobular Distribution and Variability in Hepatic ATP Binding Cassette Protein B1 (ABCB1, P-gp): Ontogenetic Differences and Potential for Toxicity
by Ngu Njei Abanda, Zoe Riches and Abby C. Collier
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010008 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3943
Abstract
The ATP Binding Cassette B1 (ABCB1) transporter has critical roles in endo- and xenobiotic efficacy and toxicity. To understand population variability in hepatic transport we determined ABCB1 mRNA and protein levels in total liver lysates sampled from 8 pre-defined sites (n = [...] Read more.
The ATP Binding Cassette B1 (ABCB1) transporter has critical roles in endo- and xenobiotic efficacy and toxicity. To understand population variability in hepatic transport we determined ABCB1 mRNA and protein levels in total liver lysates sampled from 8 pre-defined sites (n = 24, 18–69 years), and in S9 from randomly acquired samples (n = 87, 7 days–87 years). ABCB1 levels did not differ significantly throughout individual livers and showed 4.4-fold protein variation between subjects. Neither mRNA nor protein levels varied with sex, ethnicity, obesity or triglycerides in lysates or S9 (that showed the same relationships), but protein levels were lower in pediatric S9 (p < 0.0001), with 76% of adult ABCB1 present at birth and predicted to mature in 5 years. Pediatric total liver lysates were not available. In summary, opportunistic collection for studying human hepatic ABCB1 is acceptable. Additionally, ABCB1 may be lower in children, indicating differential potential for toxicity and response to therapy in this special population. Full article
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7187 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Drug–Polymer Compatibility Using Chemometric-Assisted UV-Spectrophotometry
by Amir Ibrahim Mohamed, Amr Mohamed Elsayed Abd-Motagaly, Osama A. A. Ahmed, Suzan Amin and Alaa Ibrahim Mohamed Ali
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010007 - 16 Jan 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7067
Abstract
A simple chemometric-assisted UV-spectrophotometric method was used to study the compatibility of clindamycin hydrochloride (HC1) with two commonly used natural controlled-release polymers, alginate (Ag) and chitosan (Ch). Standard mixtures containing 1:1, 1:2, and 1:0.5 w/w drug–polymer ratios were prepared and UV [...] Read more.
A simple chemometric-assisted UV-spectrophotometric method was used to study the compatibility of clindamycin hydrochloride (HC1) with two commonly used natural controlled-release polymers, alginate (Ag) and chitosan (Ch). Standard mixtures containing 1:1, 1:2, and 1:0.5 w/w drug–polymer ratios were prepared and UV scanned. A calibration model was developed with partial least square (PLS) regression analysis for each polymer separately. Then, test mixtures containing 1:1 w/w drug–polymer ratios with different sets of drug concentrations were prepared. These were UV scanned initially and after three and seven days of storage at 25 °C. Using the calibration model, the drug recovery percent was estimated and a decrease in concentration of 10% or more from initial concentration was considered to indicate instability. PLS models with PC3 (for Ag) and PC2 (for Ch) showed a good correlation between actual and found values with root mean square error of cross validation (RMSECV) of 0.00284 and 0.01228, and calibration coefficient (R2) values of 0.996 and 0.942, respectively. The average drug recovery percent after three and seven days was 98.1 ± 2.9 and 95.4 ± 4.0 (for Ag), and 97.3 ± 2.1 and 91.4 ± 3.8 (for Ch), which suggests more drug compatibility with an Ag than a Ch polymer. Conventional techniques including DSC, XRD, FTIR, and in vitro minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for (1:1) drug–polymer mixtures were also performed to confirm clindamycin compatibility with Ag and Ch polymers. Full article
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167 KiB  
Editorial
Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Pharmaceutics in 2016
by Pharmaceutics Editorial Office
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010006 - 11 Jan 2017
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3184
Abstract
The editors of Pharmaceutics would like to express their sincere gratitude to the following reviewers for assessing manuscripts in 2016.[...] Full article
206 KiB  
Review
Veterinary Compounding: Regulation, Challenges, and Resources
by Gigi Davidson
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010005 - 10 Jan 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7290
Abstract
The spectrum of therapeutic need in veterinary medicine is large, and the availability of approved drug products for all veterinary species and indications is relatively small. For this reason, extemporaneous preparation, or compounding, of drugs is commonly employed to provide veterinary medical therapies. [...] Read more.
The spectrum of therapeutic need in veterinary medicine is large, and the availability of approved drug products for all veterinary species and indications is relatively small. For this reason, extemporaneous preparation, or compounding, of drugs is commonly employed to provide veterinary medical therapies. The scope of veterinary compounding is broad and focused primarily on meeting the therapeutic needs of companion animals and not food-producing animals in order to avoid human exposure to drug residues. As beneficial as compounded medical therapies may be to animal patients, these therapies are not without risks, and serious adverse events may occur from poor quality compounds or excipients that are uniquely toxic when administered to a given species. Other challenges in extemporaneous compounding for animals include significant regulatory variation across the global veterinary community, a relative lack of validated compounding formulas for use in animals, and poor adherence by compounders to established compounding standards. The information presented in this article is intended to provide an overview of the current landscape of compounding for animals; a discussion on associated benefits, risks, and challenges; and resources to aid compounders in preparing animal compounds of the highest possible quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Medicine)
7379 KiB  
Article
Doxorubicin Delivery Using pH and Redox Dual-Responsive Hollow Nanocapsules with a Cationic Electrostatic Barrier
by Ryoma Teranishi, Ryota Matsuki, Eiji Yuba, Atsushi Harada and Kenji Kono
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010004 - 30 Dec 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6135
Abstract
For the delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), pH and redox dual responsive hollow nanocapsules were prepared through the stabilization of polymer vesicles, which spontaneously formed from polyamidoamine dendron-poly(l-lysine) (PAMAM dendron-PLL), by the introduction of disulfide (SS) bonds between PLLs. The SS-bonded nanocapsules [...] Read more.
For the delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), pH and redox dual responsive hollow nanocapsules were prepared through the stabilization of polymer vesicles, which spontaneously formed from polyamidoamine dendron-poly(l-lysine) (PAMAM dendron-PLL), by the introduction of disulfide (SS) bonds between PLLs. The SS-bonded nanocapsules exhibited a very slow release of DOX under an extracellular environment because the cationic PLL membrane acted as an electrostatic barrier against the protonated DOX molecules. However, increasing the glutathione concentration to the intracellular level facilitated the immediate release of DOX through the collapse of nanocapsules by the spontaneous cleavage of SS bonds. SS-bonded nanocapsules also escaped from the endosome by the buffering effect of PAMAM dendrons, and DOX delivery into the cytoplasm was achieved. Furthermore, DOX molecules delivered by SS-bonded nanocapsules exhibited an effective in vitro anticancer effect to HeLa cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology in Medical Therapeutic Formulations)
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1517 KiB  
Article
Drug Transporter Expression and Activity in Human Hepatoma HuH-7 Cells
by Elodie Jouan, Marc Le Vée, Claire Denizot, Yannick Parmentier and Olivier Fardel
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010003 - 28 Dec 2016
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5785
Abstract
Human hepatoma cells may represent a valuable alternative to the use of human hepatocytes for studying hepatic drug transporters, which is now a regulatory issue during drug development. In the present work, we have characterized hepatic drug transporter expression, activity and regulation in [...] Read more.
Human hepatoma cells may represent a valuable alternative to the use of human hepatocytes for studying hepatic drug transporters, which is now a regulatory issue during drug development. In the present work, we have characterized hepatic drug transporter expression, activity and regulation in human hepatoma HuH-7 cells, in order to determine the potential relevance of these cells for drug transport assays. HuH-7 cells displayed notable multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) activity, presumed to reflect expression of various hepatic MRPs, including MRP2. By contrast, they failed to display functional activities of the uptake transporters sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (NTCP), organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATPs) and organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1), and of the canalicular transporters P-glycoprotein and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP). Concomitantly, mRNA expressions of various sinusoidal and canalicular hepatic drug transporters were not detected (NTCP, OATP1B1, organic anion transporter 2 (OAT2), OCT1 and bile salt export pump) or were found to be lower (OATP1B3, OATP2B1, multidrug and toxin extrusion protein 1, BCRP and MRP3) in hepatoma HuH-7 cells than those found in human hepatocytes, whereas other transporters such as OAT7, MRP4 and MRP5 were up-regulated. HuH-7 cells additionally exhibited farnesoid X receptor (FXR)- and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-related up-regulation of some transporters. Such data indicate that HuH-7 cells, although expressing rather poorly some main hepatic drug transporters, may be useful for investigating interactions of drugs with MRPs, notably MRP2, and for studying FXR- or Nrf2-mediated gene regulation. Full article
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1556 KiB  
Review
Design and Biological Evaluation of Delivery Systems Containing Bisphosphonates
by Blessing Aderibigbe, Isiaka Aderibigbe and Patricia Popoola
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010002 - 26 Dec 2016
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7067
Abstract
Bisphosphonates have found application in the treatment of reoccurrence of bone diseases, breast cancer, etc. They have also been found to exhibit antimicrobial, anticancer and antimalarial activities. However, they suffer from pharmacological deficiencies such as toxicity, poor bioavailability and low intestinal adsorption. These [...] Read more.
Bisphosphonates have found application in the treatment of reoccurrence of bone diseases, breast cancer, etc. They have also been found to exhibit antimicrobial, anticancer and antimalarial activities. However, they suffer from pharmacological deficiencies such as toxicity, poor bioavailability and low intestinal adsorption. These shortcomings have resulted in several researchers developing delivery systems that can enhance their overall therapeutic effectiveness. This review provides a detailed overview of the published studies on delivery systems designed for the delivery of bisphosphonates and the corresponding in vitro/in vivo results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology in Medical Therapeutic Formulations)
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2093 KiB  
Article
Chitosan-Based Nano-Embedded Microparticles: Impact of Nanogel Composition on Physicochemical Properties
by Paromita Islam, Jorrit J. Water, Adam Bohr and Jukka Rantanen
Pharmaceutics 2017, 9(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9010001 - 22 Dec 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 8222
Abstract
Chitosan-based nanogels have been widely applied as drug delivery vehicles. Spray-drying of said nanogels allows for the preparation of dry powder nano-embedded microparticles. In this work, chitosan-based nanogels composed of chitosan, alginate, and/or sodium tri-penta phosphate were investigated, particularly with respect to the [...] Read more.
Chitosan-based nanogels have been widely applied as drug delivery vehicles. Spray-drying of said nanogels allows for the preparation of dry powder nano-embedded microparticles. In this work, chitosan-based nanogels composed of chitosan, alginate, and/or sodium tri-penta phosphate were investigated, particularly with respect to the impact of composition on the resulting physicochemical properties. Different compositions were obtained as nanogels with sizes ranging from 203 to 561 nm. The addition of alginate and exclusion of sodium tri-penta phosphate led to an increase in nanogel size. The nanogels were subsequently spray-dried to form nano-embedded microparticles with trehalose or mannitol as matrix excipient. The microparticles of different composition were mostly spherical with a smooth surface and a mass median aerodynamic diameter of 6–10 µm. Superior redispersibility was observed for microparticles containing amorphous trehalose. This study demonstrates the potential of nano-embedded microparticles for stabilization and delivery of nanogel-based delivery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology in Medical Therapeutic Formulations)
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