Bamboo-Based Biochar: A Still Too Little-Studied Black Gold and Its Current Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction: Biochar (BC)
2. What Can Biochar Do?
2.1. BC as Climate and Soil Improver
Critical Considerations
2.2. Xenobiotics Removal by Biochar (BC)
Xenobiotics Removal by Degradative Oxidation
3. Bamboo-Derived Biochar (BBC)
3.1. The Use of Bamboo Biomass to Prepare BC: A Plethora of Advantages over Wood
3.2. Composition of Bamboo
3.2.1. Chemical Composition of Bamboo
3.2.2. Elemental Composition of Bamboo
3.3. Bamboo-Derived Biochar (BBC)
4. BBC-Derived Persistent Free Radicals
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Source Biomass | Ref. | Application | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Crop residue | [23] | Carbon sequestration Soil amendment Composting Wastewater treatment Concrete additive Adsorbing xenobiotics Reducing greenhouse gas emissions Pollutant degradation Catalysis Stock fodder | [24] [25] [26] [27] [28,29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] |
Kitchen waste | [35] | ||
Forestry | [36] | ||
Agricultural waste | [37] | ||
Sugar beet tailings | [38] | ||
Forest residues | [39] | ||
Waste wood | [40] | ||
Bioenergy crops | [41] | ||
Municipal solid waste | [42] | ||
Wheat straw | [43] | ||
Rice straw | [44] | ||
Food manure | [45] | ||
Animal manure | [46] | ||
Corn cob | [47] |
Application | Mechanisms | Refs. |
---|---|---|
Climate change mitigation | Sequestering carbon in soil, ⇓ CO2 emissions ⇓ NO2 emissions, ⇓ CH4 emissions Tackling 12% of current anthropogenic carbon emissions | [31] |
Soil improvement | ⇑ Physicochemical and biological properties ⇑ Water retention capacity, ⇓ nutrient leaching ⇓ Acids, ⇑ microbial population and microbial activity Positive impacts on earthworm population Preventing desiccation | [25] |
Waste management | Simply by pyrolyzing waste biomass * | [48] |
Energy production | By conversion of waste biomass to BC **, providing liquid fuel (bio-oil) | [49] |
Capturing contaminants | By adsorption of both organic xenobiotics and metal ions present in soil and water | [30,32] |
Composting | ⇑ Physicochemical properties of composting ⇑ Enhance composting microbial activities ⇑ Organic matter decomposition | [26,32] |
Catching Mechanism | Influencing Factors #, Details °, Examples § | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Adsorption * | ⇑ Surface area # Microporosity of BC # pH # | [71] |
Hydrogen bond formation ** | For polar compounds °,** | |
Electrostatic attraction/repulsion | For cationic compounds ° Interaction between positively charged cationic organic contaminants and negatively charged BC surfaces °,** | |
Electrostatic outer sphere complexation | Due to metallic exchange with K+ and Na+ available in BC °,** | |
Hydrophobic interactions *** | For non-polar compounds ° | |
Diffusion | Non-ionic compounds can diffuse into the non-carbonized and carbonized fractions of BC ° | |
Formation of surface complexes ** | pH # Ionic radius # Between metal cations and -OH, -COOH on BCs ° | |
Precipitation | Lead precipitates as lead-phosphate-silicate in BC § Co-precipitates and inner-sphere complexes can form between metals and organic matter/mineral oxides of BC § |
Components | Chemical Structure/Class of Substances | Description | (%) | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cellulose | Portion of cellulose | Main material responsible for fibers’ stability and mechanical strength, allowing the formation of compact fibers Higher thermal stability and resistance to mechanical stresses in comparison to other non-cellulosic plant fiber components Exhibit areas with a flexible structure (amorphous cellulose) and areas with an ordinated, rigid, and non-flexible structure (crystalline cellulose) | 40–60 * | [118,119,120,121] |
Hemicellulose (xylan) ** | The most present hemicellulose in bamboo | Consists of a heterogeneous group of polysaccharides not forming a well-arranged fibrous network (amorphous structure) Low polymerization degree Easily absorbs water | 25 § | [116,122] |
Lignin | Portion of lignin | Amorphous phenolic macromolecule composed of phenyl propane units (C6-C3) No crystalline structure High resistance Cellulose and hemicellulose cells constitute the wall matrix Prevents cellulose and hemicellulose degradation, providing strength and rigidity to plant tissues Energy storage Polymerization degree (PD) > 15,000 High molecular weight | 20–30 | [116,120,121,123] |
Extractives | N.R. | Aromatic organic compounds, including fatty acids, terpenes, flavonoids, and steroids | N.R. | [120,122,124] |
Ash | N.R. | Mainly in the interior of the stem | 1–5 | N.R. |
Starch | Portion of starch | Production by the cellular activity of chlorophyllized vegetables Attractive for xylophagous organisms, especially for Dinoderus minutus | 2–5 | [124] |
Moisture | N.R. | N.R. | 6.1 | N.R. |
Proteins | N.R. | N.R. | 1.5–6 | [124] |
Glucose | N.R. | N.R. | 2 | [124] |
Waxes, Resins | N.R. | N.R. | 2–3.5 | [124] |
Silica | N.R. | Mainly in the epidermis, increasing from bottom to top Nonexistent in the internode tissues | 1–6 | N.R. |
Biomass | C | H | N | O | H/C | O/C | Sources |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bambusa vulgaris | 49.60 | 6.10 | 0.40 | 44.00 | 0.12 | 0.89 | [125] |
Bambusa vulgaris | 46.80 | 6.38 | 0.22 | 46.60 | 0.14 | 0.99 | [126] |
Dendrocalamus giganteus | 44.26 | 5.48 | 0.46 | 42.66 | 0.12 | 0.96 | [127] |
Dendrocalamus latiflorus | 44.22 | 6.10 | 0.07 | 45.63 | 0.14 | 1.03 | [128] |
Phyllostachys makinoi | 43.90 | 6.06 | 0.06 | 41.47 | 0.14 | 0.94 | [128] |
Phyllostachys pubescens | 45.25 | 5.71 | 0.08 | 43.89 | 0.13 | 0.97 | [128] |
Wood * | 45.68 | 6.30 | 0.30 | 47.42 | 0.14 | 1.04 | [129] |
Forest residue | 51.40 | 6.00 | 0.50 | 40.00 | 0.12 | 0.78 | [129] |
Pine | 47.79 | 5.80 | 0.10 | 45.31 | 0.12 | 0.95 | [129] |
Rice husk | 47.30 | 6.10 | 0.90 | 45.70 | 0.13 | 0.97 | [125] |
Sugar cane bagasse | 48.10 | 5.90 | 0.50 | 45.50 | 0.12 | 0.95 | [125] |
Jatropha bark | 50.80 | 6.50 | 1.50 | 41.30 | 0.13 | 0.81 | [125] |
Elephant grass | 49.20 | 6.10 | 1.10 | 43.60 | 0.12 | 0.89 | [125] |
Bamboo Biomass | Pyrolysis Conditions | Reactor | Char (%) Other (%) | Characteristics Applications | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dendrocalamus giganteus | 300 °C Slow pyrolysis | Fixed bad type | BC 80% ## Oil 35% $ Gas 40% @ | ⇑ Porosity ⇑ Carbon concentration As AC after chemical/physical modification Similar to wood biochar Energy source Soil ameliorant | [127] |
200–1000 °C | Tube furnace (MTI) | N.R. | 700 °C ⇑ Resistivity ⇑ Thermal conductivity ⇑ Thermal heating rate As a 3D microfluidic heater | [130] | |
1000 °C ⇑ Electric conductivity As working electrode | |||||
Phyllostachy edulis | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Ag-carbon electrodes for energy device applications | [131] |
Bamboo waste | KHCO3 400 °C/3 h | Muffle furnace | N.R. | Excellent electrochemical performance as supercapacitor electrode materials | [132] |
Bamboo chopsticks | 800 °C/2 h (alkali) | N.R. | N.R. | Sustainable anodes for Li-ion batteries | [133] |
Bamboo powder waste (alkali-activated) | 1000 °C/15 min | Tube furnace | N.R. | Sustainable anodes for Na-ion batteries | [134] |
Dendrocalamus asper | 400 700 800 900 °C | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | [135] |
Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel | 900 °C | Tube furnace | N.R. | BCT-derived air cathode for microbial fuel cells | [136] |
Phyllostachys edulis | 350 °C/60 min 500 °C/40 min 900 °C/240 min | N.R. | N.R. | 3D solar vapor-generation device for water desalination | [137] |
Local defoliated bamboo | Surface-carbonized | N.R. | N.R. | Efficient photothermal-conversion devices | [138] |
Agricultural by-product (BSS) d (D. latiforus Munro) | 300 °C to 500 °C | Tubular furnace | 48% | As AC when chemically/physically modified soil ameliorant ⇑ Porosity ⇑ Carbon concentration | [139] |
Dry bamboo stalks | 400 °C to 600 °C Slow pyrolysis | Muffle furnace | 32% to 27% | In place of industrially produced AC ⇑ Porosity ⇑ Carbon concentration | [113] |
Bamboo waste | 500 °C | Fabricated close tank | N.R. | ⇑ Soil fertility and crop growth | [140] |
Bamboo tick (P. praecox) | 700 °C/4 h | Closed container | N.R. | ⇑ Soil acidification ⇑ Soil C and nutrient retention ⇑ Microbial community abundance ⇓ CO2 | [141] |
Bamboo | 500 °C | N.R. | N.R. | ⇓ NO2 emissions in thermophilic phase of composting ⇑ nosZ-carrying denitrifying bacteria | [142] |
Commercial BBC | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | ⇑ Humidification during pig manure composting ⇑ Humic acid (HA) ⇑ HA/Fulvic acid (FA) ratio ⇑ Bacteria transforming organic matter | [143] |
Residual bamboo biomass | 450–550 °C | N.R. | N.R. | Soil amendment | [144] |
Bamboo waste | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Improving yield of pakchoy plant | [145] |
Bamboo feedstock | 300–600 °C | Furnace apparatus | N.R. | ⇑ Tomato plant growth ⇑ Fruit quality | [146] |
Bamboo stems (culms) a | 400 °C/30 min | Sealed metallic kiln | N.R. | ⇑ Physicochemical properties of SL, SiL ⇑ Tomato productivity | [147] |
N.R. | 500 °C/2 h | N.R. | N.R. | ⇓ Cu uptake in roots ⇓ Solubility of soil heavy metals | [148] |
N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | ⇑ pH in red soil ⇑ Soil nutrients ⇑ Abundance of Basidiomycota Mucoromycota, Chytridiomycota | [149] |
N.R. | <500 °C | N.R. | N.R. | ⇓ Mobile Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn ⇓ Pb, Mn, Cd, Zn, Cu, Ni uptake in soybean shoots ⇑ Root nodulation ⇑ Soybean growth ⇑ Plant K and Mo uptake ⇑ Soybean physiological performance | [150] |
Bamboo chips | 300 °C/1 h 450 °C/1 h 600 °C/1 h | Muffle furnace | N.R. | Remediation of As-contaminated paddy soil via iron–organic ligand complexation | [151] |
Bamboo charcoal particles b | 600 °C | N.R. | N.R. | As stabilizer for heavy metals Nitrogen retention in sludge composting | [152] |
Bamboo sawdust | 1000 °C | N.R. | N.R. | For CO2 capturing ⇓ Regeneration temperature Excellent adsorption capacity | [153] |
Bamboo carbon | 600 °C/2 h | Muffle furnace | N.R. | BBC §-immobilized Paracoccus sp. YF1 for nitrates remediation | [154] |
P. virdiglaucesons | 460 °C Slow pyrolysis | Rotary furnace | 50% | Nitrate absorption from wastewater or industrial effluents * | [155] |
Residual of Moso bamboo manufacturing | 900 °C/1 h | Electric furnace | N.R. | Nitrate-nitrogen adsorption | [156] |
Giant timber bamboo (P. bambusoides) | 400, 700, 1000 °C/1 h | Charcoal kiln | N.R. | Ammonia absorption | [157] |
Healthy dried stems without leaves of bamboo | 500 °C/20 min | Muffle furnace | N.R. | Modulate the toxic effects of chromium | [158] |
Offcuts of bamboo c | 900 °C/4 h | Vacuum annealing furnace | N.R. | Remediation of Cd (II) in water | [159] |
Bamboo residues | 400 °C | N.R. | N.R. | Restoration of acidic Cd-contaminated soil | [160] |
Local bamboo | 600 °C/4 h | N.R. | N.R. | Cu adsorption from soil ⇓ Cu accumulation in lettuce | [161] |
Bamboo pieces | 600 °C/5 h | Tube furnace | N.R. | Cu absorption from soil ⇓ Soil acidity ⇓ Zn and Pb | [162] |
Bamboo shoot shells | 500 °C/3 h | Muffle furnace | N.R. | Removal of Ag (I) and Pd (II) Removal of TC and MB | [163] |
N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of elemental mercury | [164] |
N.R. °°° | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of Cd (II) ions from water | [165] |
Makino bamboo (P. makinoi Hayata) d | 800–900 °C/2 h | Furnace | N.R. | Removal of heavy metal ions from water | [166] |
Moso (P. pubescens) and Ma (D. latiflorus) bamboo slices e | 800 °C/1 h | Furnace | N.R. | Removal of heavy metal ions from water | [167] |
B. vulgaris striata f | 650 °C/2 h | N.R. | N.R. | Adsorption of Cd (II), Hg (II), and Zn (II) from aqueous solution | [168] |
Bundles of bamboo culms (Melocanna baccifera) g | N.R./2–4 h | Kiln | N.R. | Removal of Ni (II) and Zn (II) from aqueous solutions | [169] |
Commercial bamboo charcoal | >450 °C | N.R. | N.R. | Activated by NaOH treatment ⇑ Percentage of surface graphitic carbon ⇑ Oxygen-containing groups ⇑ π–π interactions Adsorptive removal of chloramphenicol | [170] |
Bamboo pieces | 550 °C | Fluidized bed reactor | N.R. | 100% Furfural removal | [171] |
Bamboo | 600 °C/1 h | Tube furnace | N.R. | Removal of MB by electrostatic interactions | [172] |
Bamboo from authors’ campus (Jiangsu University, China) | 200 °C/6 h 180 °C/3 h | Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave | N.R. | As core–shell non-metallic photocatalysts for the photocatalytic decomposition of tetracyclines | [173] |
Bamboo sawdust | 500 °C | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of fluoroquinolone antibiotics | [174] |
Bamboo waste | 600 °C | N.R. | N.R. | In situ remediation of PCP | [175] |
Bamboo waste | 1000 °C | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of MCAB-172 | [176] |
Bamboo waste | 820 °C | Stainless steel vessel | N.R. | ⇓ Bioavailability of DEP | [177] |
Moso (P. pubescens) bamboo | 800 °C Fast pyrolysis | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of pyridine, indole, quinoline | [178] |
Bundles of bamboo culms (Melocanna baccifera) h | 800 °C Fast pyrolysis | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of MB and AO7 | [109] |
Bamboo dust i | 240 °C/2 h | Tube furnace | N.R. | Removal of MB | [179] |
Bamboo g | 700 °C/1 h (1st pyrolysis) 850 °C/2 h (activation) | Tube furnace | N.R. | Removal of MB | [180] |
Moso (P. pubescens) bamboo sections | 700 °C Fast pyrolysis | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of CAF and TC | [181] |
Bamboo waste (China) | 650 °C/1 h | Muffle furnace | N.R. | CdSe quantum dots/porous channel BBC for improved photocatalytic degradation of TC | [182] |
Purchased BBC | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Removal of DBT | [183] |
Bamboo sawdust g | 873.15 K/1 h (carbonization) 1073 K/0.5 h (activation) | Tube furnace | N.R. | Removal of NVP | [184] |
Bamboo waste | 25 °C up to 850 °C | Microwave (2450 MHz) | N.R. | Absorption of toluene and benzene ⇑ Humidity resistance | [185] |
Bamboo | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Extraction and determination of coumarins from Angelicae pubescentis Radix | [186] |
Bamboo wood (KOH-activated) | 500–700 °C/60–120 min | Vacuum pyrolysis machine | 29–34% char 37–39% oil 26–33% gas | Adsorption of CO2 and PM2.5 | [187] |
Bamboo power * | 450–600 °C | 2 L Cylindrical reactor | 9–29.82% ** 0.91–2.41% *** | As BC-supported sulfonic acid catalyst for cellulose hydrolysis | [188] |
Phyllostachys edulis | 353 K/3 h | N.R. | N.R. | BBC sulfonic acid bearing polyamide for microwave-assisted hydrolysis of cellulose | [189] |
Bamboo waste | 600 °C/30 min Fast pyrolysis | Fixed-bed system | 84.7 wt% °° | To prepare phenols | [190] |
Bamboo waste # | 600 °C/30 min | Fixed-bed reactor | Char 19% Oil 42% H2O 18% Gas 18% | Formation of aromatics and phenols | [191] |
Bamboo waste ° | 600 °C/30 min | Fixed-bed reactor | N.R. | Formation of phenols (67%) | [192] |
Bamboo activated carbon (BAC) | N.R. | N.R. | N.R. | Sulfonated BAC-based catalyst for oleic acid esterification | [193] |
Source of BBC | Application | Process | Radicals Active Site | Radicals | Refs. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bamboo | Tetracycline degradation | Fenton-like | PFRs | •OH | [196] | |
Moso bamboo ** | PFX, OTC, CTC degradation | Oxidation PDS activation | OCFRs CCFRs-O CCFRs | g2 > 2.0040 2.0030 < g3 < 2.0040 g1 < 2.0030 | •OH SO4•− | [197] |
Bamboo chips | PCB28 degradation | Electron transfer * Oxidation * | PFRs * | •OH * | [198] | |
Bamboo | SMX, TOC degradation | Electron transfer Oxidation PDS activation | PFRs | •OH, SO4•− •O2 | [199] |
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Alfei, S.; Pandoli, O.G. Bamboo-Based Biochar: A Still Too Little-Studied Black Gold and Its Current Applications. J. Xenobiot. 2024, 14, 416-451. https://doi.org/10.3390/jox14010026
Alfei S, Pandoli OG. Bamboo-Based Biochar: A Still Too Little-Studied Black Gold and Its Current Applications. Journal of Xenobiotics. 2024; 14(1):416-451. https://doi.org/10.3390/jox14010026
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlfei, Silvana, and Omar Ginoble Pandoli. 2024. "Bamboo-Based Biochar: A Still Too Little-Studied Black Gold and Its Current Applications" Journal of Xenobiotics 14, no. 1: 416-451. https://doi.org/10.3390/jox14010026