Forest Adaptation to Climate Change along Steep Ecological Gradients: The Case of the Mediterranean-Temperate Transition in South-Western Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Structure of the Social-Ecological Gradient
3.2. Major Ecological and Social Processes along the Gradient
3.3. What Adaptation Lessons Can Be Inferred from the Study Zone?
3.4. Invasive Species and Diseases as Barriers to Implementing Agroforestry as an Adaptation Option
3.5. Biomass Policies and Rapid Changes in Managed Forests
3.6. Early Warnings for Implementing Timely Policies
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Process | Variables | Methods | Policy Recommendation |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological Processes | |||
Decrease in productivity and increased mortality because of drought stress | Leaf drop, defoliation, stem dieback, temporal variation in tree rings with respect to climate | Dendrochronology, remote sensing, field monitoring programs, drought monitors | Support forest monitoring programs, promote alternative management to reduce competition between trees to cope with water stress |
Functional and compositional forest changes | Proportion of evergreen species | Field inventories, remote sensing | Support forest monitoring programs |
Species invasions including pathogens and pests | Levels of infection in keystone species | Mapping of disease spread, climate/landscape models of disease spread | Promote and maintain cultivar diversity, promote mixed cultures, support research for resistant cultivars |
Spontaneous forest regrowth | Tree density, biomass, shrub density | Field inventories, remote sensing | Study forest management practices and fire control |
Change in local climatic conditions | Mean, annual, and variability of temperature and precipitation | Weather stations | Promote, maintain, and share regional high-resolution climate data |
Social and Economic Processes | |||
Land abandonment | Diversity of agricultural activities, rural/urban demographic trends, proportion of barren land | Census of human populations, remote sensing | Promote the economic activity of remote areas through labeling and certification, include agroforesters in fire prevention programs |
Husbandry decline | Numbers and density of different types of husbandry (intensive or open), type of species, price of animal-derived products | Husbandry census, market analysis | Promote local products with labels and open husbandry to complement agroforestry areas and fire control |
Mismatches between local practices and market demands | Statistics on timber use, prices of wood biomass versus finished wood | Market statistics analysis, biomass quotas per region, electricity demands | Balance biomass extraction with alternative energy sources like solar energy |
Disruption of water cycles | Agricultural and urban levels of water use, levels of water availability | Water availability assessment in tree-based agriculture | Promote the use and commercialization of alternative non-water-thirsty crops (non-irrigated agroforestry), monitor deep water sources |
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Fernández-Manjarrés, J.F.; Ruiz-Benito, P.; Zavala, M.A.; Camarero, J.J.; Pulido, F.; Proença, V.; Navarro, L.; Sansilvestri, R.; Granda, E.; Marqués, L.; et al. Forest Adaptation to Climate Change along Steep Ecological Gradients: The Case of the Mediterranean-Temperate Transition in South-Western Europe. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3065. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093065
Fernández-Manjarrés JF, Ruiz-Benito P, Zavala MA, Camarero JJ, Pulido F, Proença V, Navarro L, Sansilvestri R, Granda E, Marqués L, et al. Forest Adaptation to Climate Change along Steep Ecological Gradients: The Case of the Mediterranean-Temperate Transition in South-Western Europe. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3065. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093065
Chicago/Turabian StyleFernández-Manjarrés, Juan F., Paloma Ruiz-Benito, Miguel A. Zavala, J. Julio Camarero, Fernando Pulido, Vânia Proença, Laetitia Navarro, Roxane Sansilvestri, Elena Granda, Laura Marqués, and et al. 2018. "Forest Adaptation to Climate Change along Steep Ecological Gradients: The Case of the Mediterranean-Temperate Transition in South-Western Europe" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3065. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093065
APA StyleFernández-Manjarrés, J. F., Ruiz-Benito, P., Zavala, M. A., Camarero, J. J., Pulido, F., Proença, V., Navarro, L., Sansilvestri, R., Granda, E., Marqués, L., Temunovič, M., Bertelsmeier, C., Drobinski, P., Roturier, S., Benito-Garzón, M., Cortazar-Atauri, I. G. d., Simon, L., Dupas, S., Levrel, H., & Sautier, M. (2018). Forest Adaptation to Climate Change along Steep Ecological Gradients: The Case of the Mediterranean-Temperate Transition in South-Western Europe. Sustainability, 10(9), 3065. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093065