The Impact of Travel and Tourism Sustainability on a Country’s Image and as the Most Important Factor in the Global Competitive Index: Building Brands Based on Fogel, Schultz, and Schumpeter
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Research Method and Hypotheses
4. Data and Methods
4.1. Data Used
4.2. Definitions
4.2.1. Best Countries Index (BCI)
4.2.2. WEF-Travel and Tourism Development Index (WEF_TT)
- the appropriate business environment (Business Environment)—this includes transparent and properly functioning legal regulations, respect and protection of property, the presence of foreign investors (FDI), the tax system, and the indicators necessary for starting a new business show time and costs (Pillar 1)
- safety and security (hereafter referred to as safety)—among its indicators, the authors highlight the frequency of occurrence of violent crimes (especially homicides) and terrorism and the costs of defense (Pillar 2)
- health and hygiene conditions—public infrastructure, number of doctors and hospital beds; the WEF also lists here the AIDS prevalence and malaria incidence values that were also used in the Global Competitiveness Reports before 2017—these received significant criticism there as well, and Klaus Schwab and his research team removed them from the 4.0 indices (Pillar 3)
- the human factor (Human Resources and Labor Market)—the old, much-criticized, and since-changed structure of the GCI returns here: the proportion of people enrolled in primary and secondary education, employee training, hiring and firing rates and costs, salaries, and the ratio of female workers (Pillar 4), furthermore
- IT knowledge and provision (ICT Readiness)—in this component, the provision of mobile and fixed broadband, as well as their use for private and business purposes (Pillar 5)
- 6.
- tourism priorities (Prioritization of Travel and Tourism)—related government measures, budget resources, statistical data, and the evaluation of the country brand strategy (Pillar 6)
- 7.
- international openness (International Openness)—this includes the visa policy, the rate of participation in bilateral and regional agreements (Pillar 7)
- 8.
- competitive prices (Price Competitiveness)—purchasing power of money, fuel prices, accommodation prices, airport costs (Pillar 8)
- 9.
- aviation—airports, flights, number of air journeys, airlines (Pillar 9)
- 10.
- land—quality of roads, asphalted kilometers, railway lines, and ports (Pillar 10), also as a separate item
- 11.
- the infrastructural background of tourism services—availability of accommodation, companies operating in the sector, ATMs (Pillar 11)
- 12.
- natural resources (Pillar 12)—world heritage sites, native species, protected areas, nature walks (Pillar 12) and
- 13.
- cultural resources (Cultural Resources)—world heritage cultural sites, sports facilities, international association meetings, festivals (Pillar 13)
- 14.
- as of 2020, this includes non-leisure resources (Non-Leisure Resources)—business and other non-leisure trips, conferences, and professional meetings, from which a significant part of the sector’s income is derived (Pillar 14)
- 15.
- sustainable environment (Environmental Sustainability) pillar—this includes environmental protection indicators: environmental legal regulations and contracts, forest, game and fish management, water protection, biodiversity (Pillar 15), and two new indexes:
- 16.
- social sensitivity (Socioeconomic Resilience and Conditions—Pillar 16) and
- 17.
- the impact of travel and tourism demand (Travel and Tourism Demand Pressure and Impact—Pillar 17)
4.3. The Model
5. Reviewing Results
WEF_TT and Country Brand
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Enabling Environment | Travel and Tourism Policy and Enabling Conditions | Infrastructure | Travel and Tourism Demand Drivers | Travel and Tourism Sustainability |
---|---|---|---|---|
Business Environment | Prioritization of Travel and Tourism | Air Transport Infrastructure | Natural Resources | Environmental Sustainability |
Safety and Security | International Openness | Ground and Port Infrastructure | Cultural Resources | Socioeconomic Resilience and Conditions |
Health and Hygiene | Price Competitiveness | Tourist Service Infrastructure | Non-Leisure Resources | Travel and Tourism Demand Pressure and Impact |
Human Resources and Labour Market | ||||
ICT Readiness |
Descriptives | |
---|---|
WEF_Travel_and_Tourism_Competitiveness_Index | |
N | 112 |
Missing | 0 |
Mean | 3.64 |
Median | 3.67 |
Standard deviation | 0.981 |
Minimum | 1.61 |
Maximum | 6.45 |
Descriptives | ||
---|---|---|
CBSR Values 2021 | BCI 2021 Overall Score | |
N | 68 | 68 |
Missing | 0 | 0 |
Mean | 4.32 | 40.5 |
Median | 4.27 | 27.2 |
Standard deviation | 0.476 | 32.7 |
Minimum | 3.34 | 1.40 |
Maximum | 5.25 | 100 |
Shapiro–Wilk W | 0.975 | 0.869 |
Shapiro–Wilk p | 0.187 | <0.001 |
Correlations of BCI’s Overall Score | Pearson’s r | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Adventure_TT | −0.385 ** | 0.001 |
Agility_TT | 0.166 | 0.171 |
Cultural Influence_TT | 0.617 *** | <0.001 |
Entrepreneurship_TT | 0.768 *** | <0.001 |
Heritage_TT | 0.660 *** | <0.001 |
Movers_TT | −0.236 * | 0.049 |
Open for Business_TT | 0.632 *** | <0.001 |
Power_TT | 0.549 *** | <0.001 |
Quality of Life_TT | 0.670 *** | <0.001 |
Social Purpose_TT | 0.05 | 0.68 |
Cultural Infl. | Entrepreneurship | Heritage | Open for Busin. | Power | Quality of Life | Score | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cultural Infl. | 0.183 (0.183 + 0) | ||||||
Entrepre-neurship | 0.395 (0.395 + 0) | ||||||
Heritage | 0.843 (0.843 + 0) | 0.475 (0.321 + 0.154) | |||||
Open for Busin | 0.629 (0.335 + 0.295) | 0.427 (0.427 + 0) | 0.264 (−0.047 + 0.311) | ||||
Power | 0.003 (0.003 + 0) | 0.753 (−0.052 + 0.806) | 0.670 (0.670 + 0) | 0.843 (0.557 + 0.286) | 0.513 (0.124 + 0.389) | ||
Quality of Life | 0.689 (0.689 + 0) | 0.418 (0.145 + 0.273) |
Enabling Environment | TT Policy | Infrastructure | TT Demand Drivers | TT Sustainability | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enabl. Env.ment | ---- | ||||
TT Policy | 0.513 *** | ---- | |||
Infrastructure | 0.619 *** | 0.534 *** | ---- | ||
TT Demand drivers | 0.189 * | 0.485 *** | 0.588 *** | ---- | |
TT Sustainability | 0.740 *** | 0.635 *** | 0.640 *** | 0.402 *** | ----- |
Overall Score | Enabl Envir | TT Policy | Infrastr | TT Demand Drivers | TT Sustain | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall Score | ------ | |||||
Human Resources | 0.187 (0.000 + 0.187) | 0.155 (0.155 + 0.000) | ||||
ICT-Readiness | 0.383 (0.000 + 0.383) | 0.318 (0.318 + 0.000) | ||||
Prioritisation | −0.167 (0.000 − 0.167) | 0.682 (0.682 + 0.000) | ||||
Internat. Openness | −0.100 (0.000 − 0.100) | 0.409 (0.409 + 0.000) | ||||
Price Competness | −0.098 (0.000 − 0.098) | 0.399 (0.399 + 0.000) | ||||
Air Infrastr | −0.139 (0.000 − 0.139) | 0.500 (0.500 + 0.000) | ||||
Ground and Port Infrastr | −0.081 (0.000 − 0.081) | 0.292 (0.292 + 0.000) | ||||
Tourist Serv. Infrastr. | −0.082 (0.000 − 0.082) | 0.296 (0.296 + 0.000) | ||||
Envir. Sust. | −0.011 (0.000 − 0.011) | 0.034 (0.034 + 0.000) | ||||
TT Demand Pressure | −0.127 (0.000 − 0.127) | 0.401 (0.401 + 0.000) | ||||
Enabl Envir | 1.204 (1.204 + 0.000) | |||||
Social Resil. | −0.317 (0.000 − 0.317) | 1.005 (1.005 + 0.000) | ||||
Natural Res. | 0.279 (0.000 + 0.279) | 0.685 (0.685 + 0.000) | ||||
Cultur. Res. | 0.039 (0.000 + 0.039) | 0.095 (0.095 + 0.000) | ||||
Non-Leisure Res. | 0.114 (0.000 + 0.114) | 0.280 (0.280 + 0.000) | ||||
TT Policy | −0.245 (−0.245 + 0.000) | |||||
Infrastr. | −0.278 (−0.278 + 0.000) | |||||
TT Dem. drs | 0.407 (0.407 + 0.000) | |||||
TT Sustain. | −0.315 (−0.315 + 0.000) | |||||
Busin Envir | 0.411 (0.000 + 0.411) | |||||
Safety | 0.303 (0.000 + 0.303) | |||||
Health | 0.268 (0.000 + 0.268) |
Enabling Environment | Infrastructure | Overall Score | TT-Sustainability | TT-Demand Drivers | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Air Infrastr. | 0.597 (0.597 + 0.000) | −0.266 (0.000 − 0.266) | |||
Cultural Resources | −0.005 (0.000 − 0.005) | −0.001 | 0.409 (0.413 − 0.004) | −0.019 (0.000 − 0.019) | 0.257 (0.257 + 0.000) |
Enabling Environment | 0.177 (0.177 + 0.000) | 0.826 (0.905 − 0.079) | |||
Ground and Port Infrastr | 0.266 (0.266 + 0.000) | −0.118 (0.000 − 0.118) | |||
Human Resource | 0.132 (0.000 + 0.132) | 0.023 | 0.109 (0.000 + 0.109) | 0.531 (0.531 + 0.000) | |
Infrastructure | −0.446 (−0.046 + 0.000) | ||||
Natural Resources | −0.013 (0.000 − 0.013) | −0.002 (0.000 − 0.002) | 0.108 (0.119 − 0.011) | −0.052 (0.000 − 0.052) | 0.705 (0.705 + 0.000) |
Overall Score | |||||
Social Resilience | 0.536 (0.536 + 0.000) | 0.095 (0.000 + 0.095) | 0.442 (0.000 − 0.442) | ||
TT-Sustainability | 0.248 (0.248 + 0.000) | 0.044 (0.000 + 0.044) | 0.205 (0.000 + 0.205) | ||
TT-Demand Drivers | −0.018 (0.000 − 0.018) | −0.003 (0.000 − 0.003) | −0.015 (0.000 − 0.015) | −0.073 (−0.073 + 0.000) | |
TT Policy | −0.030 (0.000 − 0.030) | −0.001 (0.000 − 0.001) | −0.002 (0.000 − 0.002) | −0.011 (0.000 − 0.011) | 0.157 (0.157 + 0.000) |
Tourist Services Infrastr. | 0.090 (0.000 + 0.090) | 0.016 (0.000 + 0.016) | 0.074 (0.000 + 0.074) | 0.362 (0.369 − 0.007) | 0.098 (0.098 + 0.000) |
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Kálmán, B.G.; Grotte, J.K. The Impact of Travel and Tourism Sustainability on a Country’s Image and as the Most Important Factor in the Global Competitive Index: Building Brands Based on Fogel, Schultz, and Schumpeter. Sustainability 2023, 15, 15797. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215797
Kálmán BG, Grotte JK. The Impact of Travel and Tourism Sustainability on a Country’s Image and as the Most Important Factor in the Global Competitive Index: Building Brands Based on Fogel, Schultz, and Schumpeter. Sustainability. 2023; 15(22):15797. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215797
Chicago/Turabian StyleKálmán, Botond Géza, and Judit Katalin Grotte. 2023. "The Impact of Travel and Tourism Sustainability on a Country’s Image and as the Most Important Factor in the Global Competitive Index: Building Brands Based on Fogel, Schultz, and Schumpeter" Sustainability 15, no. 22: 15797. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215797