Environmental Impact Assessment of Organic Wheat Cracker Value Chains with and without Nettle Powder as a Natural Additive: A Case of Sweden
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Organic Wheat Production in Sweden
1.2. Life Cycle Analysis of Wheat Food Products
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Goal and Scope
2.1.1. Goal
2.1.2. System Boundary and Product Value Chain Description
2.1.3. Agricultural Production Stage of Organic Crackers
2.1.4. Post-Harvest Processing Activities in the Organic Cracker Value Chain
2.1.5. Transport Segments
2.1.6. Life Cycle Inventory
Description | Unit * | Quantity | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Without Additive | With Additive | |||
(1) Agricultural stage | ||||
Organic wheat yield (assumed moisture content 16.1%) | kg/ha | 3950 | 3950 | [8] |
Amount of seed | kg/ha | 180–240 | 180–240 | Estimated based on [20,25]. |
Fuel tillage operations (note: liter diesel = 36.9 MJ) | MJ | 0.758 | 0.713 | [20] |
Electricity (natural gas) | wh | 7.44 | 7.1 | [26] |
Organic fertilizer (manure) | kg | 0.017 | 0.016 | [23] |
Energy for harvesting | wh | 7.3 | 6.84 | |
2. Post-farm activities | ||||
2.1. Wheat handling and processing | ||||
Energy used for wheat drying (drying oil) | kJ oil | 146 | 138 | |
Electricity for drying | kJ | 48.192 | 45.38 | |
Grain packaging (large polypropylene bag) | g | 6.72 | 6.33 | |
Energy for milling wheat | MJ | 0.93 | 0.874 | [27] |
2.2. Cracker-processing stage | ||||
White flour (bran separated) | kg | 0.9 | 0.85 | [24] |
Nettle powder | kg | na | 0.05 | |
Yeast | kg | 0.017 | 0.017 | |
Salt | g | 6.4 | 6.4 | [5] |
Rapeseed oil | kg | 0.077 | 0.077 | [5] |
Rapeseed oil to rapeseed ratio in mass | % | 0.36 | 0.36 | [28] |
Rapeseed (organic) needed to produce 0.077 kg rapeseed oil | kg | 0.214 | 0.214 | [28] |
Electricity for rapeseed oil production | kwh | 0.009702 | 0.009702 | |
Transport to supply rapeseed to oil-production facility | t-km | 0.0107 | 0.0107 | for 50 km |
Transport to supply rapeseed oil to cracker-production facility | t-km | 0.0077 | 0.0077 | for 100 km |
Moisture content of cracker | % | 7 | 7 | [24] |
Water for baking process | g | 550 | 550 | |
Energy for baking | kwh | 9 | 9 | |
Energy for baking | MJ | 1.2 | 1.2 | [5] |
Energy for cleaning activities | MJ | 0.123 | 0.123 | |
2.3. Packaging of Crackers | ||||
Polypropylene (for primary packaging) | g | 10.4 | 10.4 | [5] |
Cardboard (for secondary packaging) | g | 38.2 | 38.2 | |
LDPE (for tertiary packaging) | g | 0.47 | 0.47 | |
LDPE (shopping bag) | g | 4.7 | 4.7 | |
Energy for packaging | MJ | 0.36 | 0.36 | |
2.4. Distribution/retailing phase | ||||
Water consumption at DC (cooling, cleaning, storing for a month) | ml | 6.93 | 6.93 | |
Electricity at DC | j | 2.5 | 2.5 | |
Water consumption (assuming 3 weeks storage at retailer) | l | 3.135 | 3.135 | |
Energy consumption (lighting, heating, etc.) | kj | 1.236 | 1.236 | |
(3) Transport phase | ||||
Transport of grain from farm milling facility | km-t | 0.06 | 0.0565 | Estimated based on 50 km |
Transport of flour to baking place (assumed 40 t truck with 90% load rate) | km-t | 0.09 | 0.085 | Estimated based on 100 km |
Transport from production facility to distribution center | km-t | 0.3 | 0.3 | Estimated based on 300 km |
Distribution center to retailer | km-t | 0.05 | 0.05 | Estimated based on 50 km |
Retailer to consumer | km | 3 | 3 | Single trip |
Description | Unit * | Quantity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Raw material (fresh nettle) moisture content | % | 88 | [24] |
Final nettle powder moisture content | % | 7 | |
Raw material (fresh nettle) needed | kg | 0.333 | |
Transport to collect wild nettle | km | 0.25 | Based on 15 km |
Energy for convective dryer | wh | 3.996 | [29] |
Energy for grinding nettle | wh | 0.5 | [24] |
Packaging powder: low water vapor transmission rate, e.g., polypropylene, polyethylene | g | 1.25 |
2.2. Life Cycle Impact Assessment
2.2.1. Impact Categories
2.2.2. Allocation Principle
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Cumulative Energy Demand of Organic Crackers
3.2. Climate Change Impact of Organic Crackers
3.3. Acidification and Eutrophication of Organic Crackers
4. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Rayichuk, L.; Draga, M.; Boroday, V. Product Environmental Footprint and Bread Industry. In Baking Business Sustainability through Life Cycle Management; Ferreira da Rocha, J.M., Figurek, A., Goncharuk, A.G., Sirbu, A., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FAOSTAT. Crops and Livestock Products. 2024. Available online: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize (accessed on 27 March 2024).
- Sowell, A.; Williams, A. Wheat Outlook: January 2024 (Report No. WHS-24a). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2024. Available online: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/outlooks/108279/whs-24a.pdf?v=8774.5#:~:text=U.S%20winter%20wheat%20area%20for,over%20year%20(figure%202) (accessed on 29 March 2024).
- Zingale, S.; Guarnaccia, P.; Matarazzo, A.; Lagioia, G.; Ingrao, C. A systematic literature review of life cycle assessments in the durum wheat sector. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 844, 15723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Konstantas, A.; Stamford, L.; Azapagic, A. Evaluation of environmental sustainability of biscuits at the product and sectoral levels. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 230, 1217–1228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Statista. Annual Consumption Volume of Cookies, Wafers and Dry Biscuits in Sweden from 2010 to 2021. 2024a. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/645167/consumption-volume-of-cookies-wafers-and-dry-biscuits-in-sweden/ (accessed on 15 February 2024).
- Statista. Confectionery and Snacks—Sweden. 2024b. Available online: https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/food/confectionery-snacks/sweden (accessed on 3 February 2024).
- SCB. Production of Organic and Non-Organic Farming 2018. Cereals, Dried Pulses, Oilseeds, Table Potatoes and Temporary Grasses. 2019. Available online: https://www.scb.se/contentassets/c37559bf147944b5822681df7d09c97b/jo0608_2018a01_sm_jo14sm1901.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2024).
- David, C.; Abecassis, J.; Carcea, M.; Celette, F.; Friedel, J.K.; Hellou, G.; Hiltbrunner, J.; Messmer, M.; Narducci, V.; Peigné, J.; et al. Organic Bread Wheat Production and Market in Europe. Sustain. Agric. Rev. 2012, 11, 43–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bux, C.; Lombardi, M.; Varese, E.; Amicarelli, V. Economic and Environmental Assessment of Conventional versus Organic Durum Wheat Production in Southern Italy. Sustainability 2022, 14, 9143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- di Cristofaro, M.; Marino, S.; Lima, G.; Mastronardi, L. Evaluating the impacts of different wheat farming systems through Life Cycle Assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 436, 140696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Stappen, F.; Loriers, A.; Mathot, M.; Planchon, V.; Stilmant, D.; Debode, F. Organic Versus Conventional Farming: The Case of wheat Production in Wallonia (Belgium). Agric. Agric. Sci. Procedia 2015, 7, 272–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ismayana, A.; Ibrahim, O.A.; Yani, M. Life cycle assessment of wafer biscuit production. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 472, 012065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kulshreshtha, S.K.; Kumar, A. Asian Overview on Sustainability Approach in Baking Industry. In Baking Business Sustainability through Life Cycle Management; Ferreira da Rocha, J.M., Figurek, A., Goncharuk, A.G., Sirbu, A., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vargas-Hernández, J.G.; Ali, M.M. Across American Overview on Sustainability Approach throughout Baking Industry: An Analytical-Descriptive Approach. In Baking Business Sustainability through Life Cycle Management; Ferreira da Rocha, J.M., Figurek, A., Goncharuk, A.G., Sirbu, A., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sîrbu, A. Sustainability Approach of the Baking Industry Along the Food Supply Chain. In Baking Business Sustainability through Life Cycle Management; Ferreira da Rocha, J.M., Figurek, A., Goncharuk, A.G., Sirbu, A., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Temkov, M.; Velickova, E.; Tomovska, E. Ensuring Sustainability of Baking Industry in North Macedonia. In Baking Business Sustainability through Life Cycle Management; Ferreira da Rocha, J.M., Figurek, A., Goncharuk, A.G., Sirbu, A., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noya, L.I.; Vasilaki, V.; Stojceska, V.; González-García, S.; Kleynhans, C.; Tassou, S.; Moreira, M.T.; Katsou, E. An environmental evaluation of food supply chain using life cycle assessment: A case study on gluten free biscuit products. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 170, 451–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sundberg, H. The Water Footprint of Winter Wheat in Sweden. 2012. Available online: https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=3127244&fileOId=3127252 (accessed on 3 April 2024).
- Röös, E.; Sundberg, C.; Hansson, P.A. Uncertainties in the carbon footprint of refined wheat products: A case study on Swedish pasta. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2011, 16, 338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ISO 14040:2006; Environmental Management, Life Cycle Assessment Principles and Framework. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html (accessed on 3 April 2024).
- ISO 14044:2006; Environmental Management, Life Cycle Assessment Requirements and Guidelines. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html (accessed on 3 April 2024).
- Cederberg, C.; Flysjö, A. Life Cycle Inventory of 23 Dairy Farms in South-Western Sweden; SIK-Rapport, Report Number 728; SIK Institutet för livsmedel och bioteknik: Gothenburg, Sweden, 2004; ISBN 91-7290-237-X. [Google Scholar]
- UniTus. Expermental Data from Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy. Data as Part of SusOrgPlus Project. 2020. Available online: https://www.susorgplus.eu/about (accessed on 2 April 2024).
- Recchia, L.; Cappelli, A.; Cini, E.; Garbati Pegna, F.; Boncinelli, P. Environmental Sustainability of Pasta Production Chains: An Integrated Approach for Comparing Local and Global Chains. Resources 2019, 8, 56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LCAfood. LCA Food Database, Retrieved from SimaPro Software. 2007. Available online: http://gefionau.dk/lcafood/ (accessed on 20 October 2017).
- Sarduy Gómez, J.R.; Felipe Viego, P.R.; Torres Díaz, Y.; Plascencia Álvarez Guerra, M.A.; Sousa, V.; Haeseldonckx, D. A New Energy Performance Indicator for Energy Management System of a Wheat Mill Plant. Int. J. Energy Econ. Policy 2018, 8, 324–330. Available online: https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijeep/article/view/6753/3867 (accessed on 3 April 2024).
- Fridrihsone, A.; Romagnoli, F.; Cabulis, U. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Rapeseed and Rapeseed Oil Produced in Northern Europe: A Latvian Case Study. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alibas, I. Energy Consumption and Colour Characteristics of Nettle Leaves during Microwave, Vacuum and Convective Drying. Biosyst. Eng. 2007, 96, 495–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nallan Chakravartula, S.S.; Moscetti, R.; Farinon, B.; Vinciguerra, V.; Merendino, N.; Bedini, G.; Neri, L.; Pittia, P.; Massantini, R. Stinging Nettles as Potential Food Additive: Effect of Drying Processes on Quality Characteristics of Leaf Powders. Foods 2021, 10, 1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Year | Organic Winter Wheat (kg/ha) | Conventional Winter Wheat (kg/ha) |
---|---|---|
2012 | 3590 | 6970 |
2013 | 3170 | 6490 |
2014 | 3870 | 7420 |
2015 | 4140 | 7780 |
2016 | 3960 | 6860 |
2017 | 4680 | 7540 |
2018 | 3280 | 4900 |
2019 | 4910 | 8000 |
Impact Category | Unit | Agricultural Production | Post-Harvest Processing | Transport | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crackers without additive | |||||
Terrestrial acidification | g SO2 eq/FU | 0.2949 | 1.1196 | 0.5748 | 1.9892 |
Freshwater eutrophication | g P eq/FU | 0.0023 | 0.0564 | 0.0057 | 0.0643 |
Marine eutrophication | g N eq/FU | 0.0004 | 0.3157 | 0.0007 | 0.3167 |
Crackers with additive * | |||||
Terrestrial acidification | g SO2 eq/FU | 0.2774 | 1.4209 | 0.5728 | 2.2710 |
Freshwater eutrophication | g P eq/FU | 0.0021 | 0.0828 | 0.0057 | 0.0905 |
Marine eutrophication | g N eq/FU | 0.0004 | 0.3176 | 0.0007 | 0.3186 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bosona, T. Environmental Impact Assessment of Organic Wheat Cracker Value Chains with and without Nettle Powder as a Natural Additive: A Case of Sweden. Sustainability 2024, 16, 3092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16073092
Bosona T. Environmental Impact Assessment of Organic Wheat Cracker Value Chains with and without Nettle Powder as a Natural Additive: A Case of Sweden. Sustainability. 2024; 16(7):3092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16073092
Chicago/Turabian StyleBosona, Techane. 2024. "Environmental Impact Assessment of Organic Wheat Cracker Value Chains with and without Nettle Powder as a Natural Additive: A Case of Sweden" Sustainability 16, no. 7: 3092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16073092