Which Microbes Like My Diet and What Does It Mean for My Heart?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Diet pattern
2.1. Traditional vs. Modern Industrialized Diet
What Does It Mean for the Heart?
3. Diet Compound
3.1. Fats
What Does It Mean for the Heart?
3.2. Proteins
What Does It Mean for the Heart?
3.3. Carbohydrates
3.3.1. Dietary Fiber
3.3.2. What Does It Mean for the Heart?
3.4. Vitamins
What Does It Mean for the Heart?
3.5. Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio and Diet
4. Summary
5. Future Area of Interest and Goals
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- National HES Manual. Available online: http://www.ehes.info/manuals/national_manuals/national_manual_Poland_PL.pdf (accessed on 3 September 2021).
- Stokes, J., 3rd; Kannel, W.B.; Dawber, T.R.; Kagan, A.; Revotskie, N. Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease-six year follow-up experience. The Framingham Study. Ann. Intern. Med. 1961, 55, 33–50. [Google Scholar]
- Townsend, N.; Wilson, L.; Bhatnagar, P.; Wickramasinghe, K.; Rayner, M.; Nichols, M. Cardiovascular disease in Europe: Epidemiological update 2016. Eur. Heart J. 2016, 37, 3232–3245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bäckhed, F.; Ley, R.E.; Sonnenburg, J.L.; Peterson, D.A.; Gordon, J.I. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science 2005, 307, 1915–1920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Xu, J.; Gordon, J.I. Honor thy symbionts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 10452–10459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chow, J.; Lee, S.M.; Shen, Y.; Khosravi, A.; Mazmanian, S.K. Host-bacterial symbiosis in health and disease. Adv. Immunol. 2010, 107, 243–274. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Witkowski, M.; Weeks, T.L.; Hazen, S.L. Gut Microbiota and Cardiovascular Disease. Circ. Res. 2020, 127, 553–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, C.J.; Ajami, N.J.; O’Brien, J.L.; Hutchinson, D.S.; Smith, D.P.; Wong, M.C.; Ross, M.C.; Lloyd, R.E.; Doddapaneni, H.; Metcalf, G.A.; et al. Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study. Nature 2018, 562, 583–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodríguez, J.M.; Murphy, K.; Stanton, C.; Ross, R.P.; Kober, O.I.; Juge, N.; Avershina, E.; Rudi, K.; Narbad, A.; Jenmalm, M.C.; et al. The composition of the gut microbiota throughout life, with an emphasis on early life. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis. 2015, 26, 26050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De Filippo, C.; Cavalieri, D.; Di Paola, M.; Ramazzotti, M.; Poullet, J.B.; Massart, S.; Collini, S.; Pieraccini, G.; Lionetti, P. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 14691–14696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Turroni, S.; Fiori, J.; Rampelli, S.; Schnorr, S.L.; Consolandi, C.; Barone, M.; Biagi, E.; Fanelli, F.; Mezzullo, M.; Crittenden, A.N.; et al. Fecal metabolome of the Hadza hunter-gatherers: A host-microbiome integrative view. Sci. Rep. 2016, 14, 32826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Emoto, T.; Yamashita, T.; Sasaki, N.; Hirota, Y.; Hayashi, T.; So, A.; Kasahara, K.; Yodoi, K.; Matsumoto, T.; Mizoguchi, T.; et al. Analysis of gut microbiota in coronary artery disease patients: A possible link between gut microbiota and coronary artery disease. Atheroscler. Thromb. 2016, 23, 908–921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, L.; He, X.; Feng, Y. Coronary heart disease and intestinal microbiota. Coron. Artery Dis. 2019, 30, 384–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- García-Montero, C.; Fraile-Martínez, O.; Gómez-Lahoz, A.M.; Pekarek, L.; Castellanos, A.J.; Noguerales-Fraguas, F.; Coca, S.; Guijarro, L.G.; García-Honduvilla, N.; Asúnsolo, A.; et al. Nutritional Components in Western Diet Versus Mediterranean Diet at the Gut Microbiota-Immune System Interplay. Implications for Health and Disease. Nutrients 2021, 13, 699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garcia-Mantrana, I.; Selma-Royo, M.; Alcantara, C.; Collado, M.C. Shifts on gut microbiota associated to mediterranean diet adherence and specific dietary intakes on general adult population. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Merra, G.; Noce, A.; Marrone, G.; Cintoni, M.; Tarsitano, M.G.; Capacci, A.; De Lorenzo, A. Influence of mediterranean diet on human gut microbiota. Nutrients 2021, 13, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamashita, T.; Emoto, T.; Sasaki, N.; Hirata, K.I. Gut microbiota and coronary artery disease. Int. Heart J. 2016, 57, 663–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lin, A.; Bik, E.M.; Costello, E.K.; Dethlefsen, L.; Haque, R.; Relman, D.A.; Singh, A. Distinct distal gut microbiome diversity and composition in healthy children from Bangladesh and the United States. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e53838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hu, X.F.; Zhang, W.Y.; Wen, Q.; Chen, W.J.; Wang, Z.M.; Chen, J.; Zhu, F.; Liu, K.; Cheng, L.X.; Yang, J.; et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation alleviates myocardial damage in myocarditis by restoring the microbiota composition. Pharmacol. Res. 2019, 139, 412–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spady, D.K.; Woollett, L.A.; Dietschy, J.M. Regulation of plasma LDL cholesterol levels by dietary cholesterol and fatty acids. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1993, 13, 355–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gerard, P. Metabolism of cholesterol and bile acids by the gut microbiota. Pathogens 2014, 3, 14–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Alou, M.T.; Lagier, J.C.; Raoult, D. Diet influence on the gut microbiota and dysbiosis related to nutritional disorders. Hum. Microb. J. 2016, 1, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salyers, A.A.; West, S.E.; Vercellotti, J.R.; Wilkins, T.D. Fermentation of mucins and plant polysaccharides by anaerobic bacteria from the human colon. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1977, 34, 529–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hildebrandt, M.A.; Hoffmann, C.; Sherrill-Mix, S.A.; Keilbaugh, S.A.; Hamady, M.; Chen, Y.Y.; Knight, R.; Ahima, R.S.; Bushman, F.; Wu, G.D. High-fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity. Gastroenterology 2009, 137, 1716–1724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shang, Y.; Khafipour, E.; Derakhshani, H.; Sarna, L.K.; Woo, C.W.; Siow, Y.L.; Karmin, O. Short term high fat diet induces obesity enhancing changes in mouse gut microbiota that are partially reversed by cessation of the high fat diet. Lipids 2017, 52, 499–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamilton, M.K.; Boudry, G.; Lemay, D.G.; Raybould, H.E. Changes in intestinal barrier function and gut microbiota in high-fat diet-fed rats are dynamic and region dependent. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2015, 308, 840–851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Wit, N.; Derrien, M.; Bosch-Vermeulen, H.; Oosterink, E.; Keshtkar, S.; Duval, C.; de Vogel-van den Bosch, J.; Kleerebezem, M.; Müller, M.; van der Meer, R. Saturated fat stimulates obesity and hepatic steatosis and affects gut microbiota composition by an enhanced overflow of dietary fat to the distal intestine. AJP Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2012, 303, 589–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wu, G.D.; Chen, J.; Hoffmann, C.; Bittinger, K.; Chen, Y.Y.; Keilbaugh, S.A.; Bewtra, M.; Knights, D.; Walters, W.A.; Knight, R.; et al. Linking Long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 2011, 334, 105–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Arumugam, M.; Raes, J.; Pelletier, E.; Le Paslier, D.; Yamada, T.; Mende, D.R.; Fernandes, G.R.; Tap, J.; Bruls, T.; Batto, J.M.; et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 2011, 473, 174–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cani, P.D.; Amar, J.; Iglesias, M.A.; Poggi, M.; Knauf, C.; Bastelica, D.; Neyrinck, A.M.; Fava, F.; Tuohy, K.M.; Chabo, C.; et al. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes 2007, 56, 1761–1772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bisanz, J.E.; Upadhyay, V.; Turnbaugh, J.A.; Ly, K.; Turnbaugh, P.J. Meta-Analysis Reveals Reproducible Gut Microbiome Alterations in Response to a High-Fat Diet. Cell Host Microbe 2019, 26, 265–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodríguez-Figueroa, J.C.; González-Córdova, A.F.; Astiazaran-García, H.; Vallejo-Cordoba, B. Hypotensive and heart rate-lowering effects in rats receiving milk fermented by specific Lactococcus lactis strains. Br. J. Nutr. 2013, 109, 827–833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Peng, M.; Bitsko, E.; Biswas, D. Functional properties of peanut fractions on the growth of probiotics and foodborne bacterial pathogens. J. Food Sci. 2015, 80, 635–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lozupone, C.A.; Stombaugh, J.I.; Gordon, J.I.; Jansson, J.K.; Knight, R. Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature 2012, 489, 220–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tremaroli, V.; Bäckhed, F. Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature 2012, 489, 242–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deplancke, B.; Gaskins, H.R. Microbial modulation of innate defense: Goblet cells and the intestinal mucus layer. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 73, 1131–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hancock, R.E.; Haney, E.F.; Gill, E.E. The immunology of host defence peptides: Beyond antimicrobial activity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2016, 16, 321–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hooper, L.V.; Littman, D.R.; Macpherson, A.J. Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Science 2012, 336, 1268–1273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Faith, J.J.; McNulty, N.P.; Rey, F.E.; Gordon, J.I. Predicting a human gut microbiota’s response to diet in gnotobiotic mice. Science 2011, 333, 101–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Windey, K.; De Preter, V.; Verbeke, K. Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2012, 56, 184–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fava, F.; Gitau, R.; Griffin, B.A.; Gibson, G.R.; Tuohy, K.M.; Lovegrove, J.A. The type and quantity of dietary fat and carbohydrate alter faecal microbiome and short-chain fatty acid excretion in a metabolic syndrome ‘at-risk’ population. Int. J. Obes. 2013, 37, 216–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Canfora, E.E.; van der Beek, C.M.; Hermes, G.D.A.; Goossens, G.H.; Jocken, J.W.E.; Holst, J.J.; van Eijk, H.M.; Venema, K.; Smidt, H.; Zoetendal, E.G.; et al. Supplementation of Diet with Galacto-oligosaccharides Increases Bifidobacteria, but Not Insulin Sensitivity, in Obese Prediabetic Individuals. Gastroenterology 2017, 153, 87–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhernakova, A.; Kurilshikov, A.; Bonder, M.J.; Tigchelaar, E.F.; Schirmer, M.; Vatanen, T.; Mujagic, Z.; Vila, A.V.; Falony, G.; Vieira-Silva, S.; et al. Population-based metagenomics analysis reveals markers for gut microbiome composition and diversity. Science 2016, 352, 565–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- So, D.; Whelan, K.; Rossi, M.; Morrison, M.; Holtmann, G.; Kelly, J.T.; Shanahan, E.R.; Staudacher, H.M.; Campbell, K.L. Dietary fiber intervention on gut microbiota composition in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 107, 965–983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Massot-Cladera, M.; Azagra-Boronat, I.; Franch, A.; Castell, M.; J Rodríguez-Lagunas, M.; Pérez-Cano, F.J. Gut Health-Promoting Benefits of a Dietary Supplement of Vitamins with Inulin and Acacia Fibers in Rats. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holscher, H.D.; Caporaso, J.G.; Hooda, S.; Brulc, J.M.; Fahey, G.C., Jr.; Swanson, K.S. Fiber supplementation influences phylogenetic structure and functional capacity of the human intestinal microbiome: Follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015, 101, 55–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monk, J.M.; Lepp, D.; Wu, W.; Pauls, K.P.; Robinson, L.E.; Power, K.A. Navy and black bean supplementation primes the colonic mucosal microenvironment to improve gut health. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2017, 49, 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, R.L.; Jiang, L.; Adams, J.S.; Xu, Z.Z.; Shen, J.; Janssen, S.; Ackermann, G.; Vanderschueren, D.; Pauwels, S.; Knight, R.; et al. Vitamin D metabolites and the gut microbiome in older men. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 5997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sinning, A.R. Role of vitamin A in the formation of congenital heart defects. Anat. Rec. 1998, 253, 147–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, H.; Shou, Y.; Zhu, X.; Xu, Y.; Shi, L.; Xiang, S.; Feng, X.; Han, J. Stability of vitamin B12 with the protection of whey proteins and their effects on the gut microbiome. Food Chem. 2019, 276, 298–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, Y.; Lee, S.; Kim, S.; Lee, J.; Ha, J.; Oh, H.; Lee, Y.; Kim, Y.; Yoon, Y. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) consumption influences gut microbiota composition. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 71, 221–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naito, Y.; Uchiyama, K.; Takagi, T. A next-generation beneficial microbe: Akkermansia muciniphila. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2018, 63, 33–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Raetz, C.R.H.; Whitfield, C. Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2002, 71, 635–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pålsson-McDermott, E.M.; O’Neill, L.A.J. Signal transduction by the lipopolysaccharide receptor, Toll-like receptor-4. Immunology 2004, 113, 153–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, H.; Kokoeva, M.V.; Inouye, K.; Tzameli, I.; Yin, H.; Flier, J.S. TLR4 links innate immunity and fatty acid-induced insulin resistance. J. Clin. Investig. 2006, 116, 3015–3025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rohr, M.W.; Narasimhulu, C.A.; Rudeski-Rohr, T.A.; Parthasarathy, S. Negative Effects of a High-Fat Diet on Intestinal Permeability: A Review. Adv. Nutr. 2019, 11, 77–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bojková, B.; Winklewski, P.J.; Wszedybyl-Winklewska, M. Dietary Fat and Cancer-Which Is Good, Which Is Bad, and the Body of Evidence. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 4114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qiao, Y.; Sun, J.; Ding, Y.; Le, G.; Shi, Y. Alterations of the gut microbiota in high-fat diet mice is strongly linked to oxidative stress. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013, 97, 1689–1697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hylemon, P.B.; Zhou, H.; Pandak, W.M.; Ren, S.; Gil, G.; Dent, P. Bile acids as regulatory molecules. J. Lipid Res. 2009, 50, 1509–1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sayin, S.I.; Wahlström, A.; Felin, J.; Jäntti, S.; Marschall, H.U.; Bamberg, K.; Angelin, B.; Hyötyläinen, T.; Orešič, M.; Bäckhed, F. Gut microbiota regulates bile acid metabolism by reducing the levels of tauro-beta-muricholic acid, a naturally occurring FXR antagonist. Cell Metab. 2013, 17, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vasavan, T.; Ferraro, E.; Ibrahim, E.; Dixon, P.; Gorelik, J.; Williamson, C. Heart and bile acids—Clinical consequences of altered bile acid metabolism. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2018, 1864, 1345–1355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, M.L.; Yi, L.; Zhang, Y.; Zhou, X.; Ran, L.; Yang, J.; Zhu, J.D.; Zhang, Q.Y.; Mi, M.T. Resveratrol Attenuates Trimethylamine-N-Oxide (TMAO)-Induced Atherosclerosis by Regulating TMAO Synthesis and Bile Acid Metabolism via Remodeling of the Gut Microbiota. mBio 2016, 7, e02210-15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rath, S.; Heidrich, B.; Pieper, D.H.; Vital, M. Uncovering the trimethylamine-producing bacteria of the human gut microbiota. Microbiome 2017, 5, 54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wang, Z.; Klipfell, E.; Bennett, B.J.; Koeth, R.; Levison, B.S.; Dugar, B.; Feldstein, A.E.; Britt, E.B.; Fu, X.; Chung, Y.; et al. Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature 2011, 472, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Koeth, R.A.; Wang, Z.; Levison, B.S.; Buffa, J.A.; Org, E.; Sheehy, B.T.; Britt, E.B.; Fu, X.; Wu, Y.; Li, L.; et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat. Med. 2013, 19, 576–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Suzuki, H.; Kurihara, Y.; Takeya, M.; Kamada, N.; Kataoka, M.; Jishage, K.; Ueda, O.; Sakaguchi, H.; Higashi, T.; Suzuki, T.; et al. A role for macrophage scavenger receptors in atherosclerosis and susceptibility to infection. Nature 1997, 386, 292–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hardin, S.J.; Singh, M.; Eyob, W.; Molnar, J.C.; Homme, R.P.; George, A.K.; Tyagi, S.C. Diet-induced chronic syndrome, metabolically transformed trimethylamine-N-oxide, and the cardiovascular functions. Rev. Cardiovasc. Med. 2019, 20, 121–128. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Geng, J.; Yang, C.; Wang, B.; Zhang, X.; Hu, T.; Gu, Y.; Li, J. Trimethylamine N-oxide promotes atherosclerosis via CD36-dependent MAPK/JNK pathway. E Biomed. Pharmacother. 2018, 97, 941–947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, S.; Li, X.; Yang, F.; Zhao, R.; Pan, X.; Liang, J.; Tian, L.; Li, X.; Liu, L.; Xing, Y.; et al. Gut Microbiota-Dependent Marker TMAO in Promoting Cardiovascular Disease: Inflammation Mechanism, Clinical Prognostic, and Potential as a Therapeutic Target. Front. Pharmacol. 2019, 10, 1360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hazen, S.L. Gut microbial metabolite TMAO enhances platelet hyperreactivity and thrombosis risk. Cell 2016, 165, 111–124. [Google Scholar]
- Zhao, J.; Zhang, X.; Liu, H.; Brown, M.A.; Qiao, S. Dietary Protein and Gut Microbiota Composition and Function. Curr. Protein Pept. Sci. 2019, 20, 145–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beaumont, M.; Portune, K.J.; Steuer, N.; Lan, A.; Cerrudo, V.; Audebert, M.; Dumont, F.; Mancano, G.; Khodorova, N.; Andriamihaja, M.; et al. Quantity and source of dietary protein influence metabolite production by gut microbiota and rectal mucosa gene expression: A randomized, parallel, double-blind trial in overweight humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 106, 1005–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Karl, J.P.; Berryman, C.E.; Young, A.J.; Radcliffe, P.N.; Branck, T.A.; Pantoja-Feliciano, I.G.; Rood, J.C.; Pasiakos, S.M. Associations between the gut microbiota and host responses to high altitude. Am. J. Physiol Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2018, 315, 1003–1015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barker, H.A. Amino acid degradation by anaerobic bacteria. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1981, 50, 23–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, H.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, S.; Yang, F.; Thacker, P.A.; Zhang, G.; Qiao, S.; Ma, X.J. Oral administration of Lactobacillus fermentum favors intestinal development and alters the intestinal microbiota in formula-fed piglets. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 860–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kau, A.L.; Ahern, P.P.; Griffin, N.W.; Goodman, A.L.; Gordon, J.I. Human nutrition, the gut microbiome and the immune system. Nature 2011, 474, 327–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gensollen, T.; Iyer, S.S.; Kasper, D.L.; Blumberg, R.S. How colonization by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system. Science 2016, 352, 539–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lang, J.M.; Pan, C.; Cantor, R.M.; Tang, W.H.W.; Garcia-Garcia, J.C.; Kurtz, I.; Hazen, S.L.; Bergeron, N.; Krauss, R.M.; Lusis, A.J. Impact of Individual Traits, Saturated Fat, and Protein Source on the Gut Microbiome. mBio 2018, 9, e01604-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hayashi, T.; Yamashita, T.; Watanabe, H.; Kami, K.; Yoshida, N.; Tabata, T.; Emoto, T.; Sasaki, N.; Mizoguchi, T.; Irino, Y.; et al. Gut Microbiome and Plasma Microbiome-Related Metabolites in Patients with Decompensated and Compensated Heart Failure. Circ. J. 2018, 83, 182–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Danilo, C.A.; Constantopoulos, E.; McKee, L.A.; Chen, H.; Regan, J.A.; Lipovka, Y.; Lahtinen, S.; Stenman, L.K.; Nguyen, T.-V.V.; Doyle, K.P.; et al. Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis 420 mitigates the pathological impact of myocardial infarction in the mouse. Benef. Microbes 2017, 8, 257–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farrokhian, A.; Raygan, F.; Soltani, A.; Tajabadi-Ebrahimi, M.; Esfahani, M.S.; Karami, A.A.; Asemi, Z. The Effects of Synbiotic Supplementation on Carotid Intima-Media Thickness, Biomarkers of Inf mation, and Oxidative Stress in People with Overweight, Diabetes, and Coronary Heart Disease: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 2019, 11, 133–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gan, X.T.; Ettinger, G.; Huang, C.X.; Burton, J.P.; Haist, J.V.; Rajapurohitam, V.; Sidaway, J.E.; Martin, G.; Gloor, G.B.; Swann, J.R.; et al. Probiotic administration attenuates myocardial hypertrophy and heart failure following myocardial infarction in the rat. Circ. Heart Fail. 2014, 7, 491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ettinger, G.; Burton, J.P.; Gloor, G.B.; Reidm, G. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 Attenuates Induction of Hypertrophy in Cardiomyocytes but Not through Secreted Protein MSP-1 (p75). PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0168622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ott, S.J.; El Mokhtari, N.E.; Musfeldt, M.; Hellmig, S.; Freitag, S.; Rehman, A.; Kühbacher, T.; Nikolaus, S.; Namsolleck, P.; Blaut, M.; et al. Detection of diverse bacterial signatures in atherosclerotic lesions of patients with coronary heart disease. Circulation 2006, 113, 929–937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McAdow, M.; Kim, H.K.; Dedent, A.C.; Hendrickx, A.P.A.; Schneewind, O.; Missiakas, D.M. Preventing Staphylococcus aureus sepsis through the inhibition of its agglutination in blood. PLoS Pathog. 2011, 7, e1002307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Shin, J.H.; Sim, M.; Lee, J.Y.; Shin, D.M. Lifestyle and geographic insights into the distinct gut microbiota in elderly women from two different geographic locations. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2016, 35, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gomez-Arango, L.F.; Barrett, H.; McIntyre, D.; Callaway, L.K.; Morrison, M.; Nitert, M.D. Increased Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota Composition and Butyrate Production in Early Pregnancy. Hypertension 2016, 68, 974–977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Toral, M.; Robles-Vera, I.; de la Visitación, N.; Romero, M.; Yang, T.; Sánchez, M.; Gómez-Guzmán, M.; Jiménez, R.; Raizada, M.K.; Duarte, J. Critical Role of the Interaction Gut Microbiota—Sympathetic Nervous System in the Regulation of Blood Pressure. Front. Physiol. 2019, 10, 231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Xie, J.; Lu, W.; Zhong, L.; Hu, Y.; Li, Q.; Ding, R.; Zhong, Z.; Liu, Z.; Xiao, H.; Xie, D.; et al. Alterations in gut microbiota of abdominal aortic aneurysm mice. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 2020, 20, 32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hills, R.D., Jr.; Pontefract, B.A.; Mishcon, H.R.; Black, C.A.; Sutton, S.C.; Theberge, C.R. Gut Microbiome: Profound Implications for Diet and Disease. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Boets, E.; Gomand, S.V.; Deroover, L.; Preston, T.; Vermeulen, K.; De Preter, V.; Hamer, H.M.; Van den Mooter, G.; De Vuyst, L.; Courtin, C.M.; et al. Systemic availability and metabolism of colonic-derived short-chain fatty acids in healthy subjects: A stable isotope study. J. Physiol. 2017, 595, 541–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, J.; Zhao, F.; Wang, Y.; Chen, J.; Tao, J.; Tian, G.; Wu, S.; Liu, W.; Cui, Q.; Geng, B.; et al. Gut microbiota dysbiosis contributes to the development of hypertension. Microbiome 2017, 5, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kelly, T.N.; Bazzano, L.A.; Ajami, N.J.; He, H.; Zhao, J.; Petrosino, J.F.; Correa, A.; He, J. Gut Microbiome Associates with Lifetime Cardiovascular Disease Risk Profile Among Bogalusa Heart Study Participants. Circ. Res. 2016, 119, 956–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, Z.; Li, J.; Liu, H.; Tang, Y.; Zhan, Q.; Lai, W.; Ao, L.; Meng, X.; Ren, H.; Xu, D.; et al. The intestinal microbiota associated with cardiac valve calcification differs from that of coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2019, 284, 121–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Verhaar, B.J.H.; Prodan, A.; Nieuwdorp, M.; Muller, M. Gut Microbiota in Hypertension and Atherosclerosis: A Review. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.F.; Ren, S.C.; Tang, G.; Wu, C.; Chen, X.; Tang, X.Q. Short-chain fatty acids in blood pressure, friend or foe. Chin. Med. J. 2021, 134, 2393–2394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Verhaar, B.J.H.; Collard, D.; Prodan, A.; Levels, J.H.M.; Zwinderman, A.H.; Bäckhed, F.; Vogt, L.; Peters, M.J.L.; Muller, M.; Nieuwdorp, M.; et al. Associations between gut microbiota, faecal short-chain fatty acids, and blood pressure across ethnic groups: The HELIUS study. Eur. Heart J. 2020, 41, 4259–4267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huart, J.; Leenders, J.; Taminiau, B.; Descy, J.; Saint-Remy, A.; Daube, G.; Krzesinski, J.M.; Melin, P.; De Tullio, P.; Jouret, F. Gut Microbiota and Fecal Levels of Short-Chain Fatty Acids Differ Upon 24-Hour Blood Pressure Levels in Men. Hypertension 2019, 74, 1005–1013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De La Cuesta-Zuluaga, J.; Mueller, N.T.; Alvarez, R.Q.; Velásquez-Mejía, E.P.; Sierra, J.A.; Corrales-Agudelo, V.; Carmona, J.A.; Abad, J.M.; Escobar, J.S. Higher Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Levels Are Associated with Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis, Obesity, Hypertension and Cardiometabolic Disease Risk Factors. Nutrients 2018, 11, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Le Poul, E.; Loison, C.; Struyf, S.; Springael, J.Y.; Lannoy, V.; Decobecq, M.E.; Brezillon, S.; Dupriez, V.; Vassart, G.; Van Damme, J.; et al. Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 25481–25489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pluznicki, J.L. Microbial Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Blood Pressure Regulation. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 2017, 19, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ohira, H.; Tsutsui, W.; Fujioka, Y. Are Short Chain Fatty Acids in Gut Microbiota Defensive Players for Inflammation and Atherosclerosis? J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 2017, 24, 660–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Miyamoto, J.; Kasubuchi, M.; Nakajima, A.; Irie, J.; Itoh, H.; Kimura, I. The role of short-chain fatty acid on blood pressure regulation. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2016, 25, 379–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pluznick, J. A novel SCFA receptor, the microbiota, and blood pressure regulation. Gut Microbes 2014, 5, 202–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, T.; Magee, K.L.; Colon-Perez, L.M.; Larkin, R.; Liao, Y.S.; Balazic, E.; Cowart, J.R.; Arocha, R.; Redler, T.; Febo, M.; et al. Impaired butyrate absorption in the proximal colon, low serum butyrate and diminished central effects of butyrate on blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Acta Physiol. 2019, 226, e13256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lal, S.; Kirkup, A.J.; Brunsden, A.M.; Thompson, D.G.; Grundy, D. Vagal afferent responses to fatty acids of different chain length in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol. 2001, 281, G907–G915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marques, F.Z.; Nelson, E.; Chu, P.Y.; Horlock, D.; Fiedler, A.; Ziemann, M.; Tan, J.K.; Kuruppu, S.; Rajapakse, N.W.; El-Osta, A.; et al. High-fiber diet and acetate supplementation change the gut microbiota and prevent the development of hypertension and heart failure in hypertensive mice. Circulation 2017, 135, 964–977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poll, B.G.; Xu, J.; Jun, S.; Sanchez, J.; Zaidman, N.A.; He, X.; Lester, L.; Berkowitz, D.E.; Paolocci, N.; Gao, W.D.; et al. Acetate, a Short-Chain Fatty Acid, Acutely Lowers Heart Rate and Cardiac Contractility Along with Blood Pressure. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2021, 377, 39–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartolomaeus, H.; Balogh, A.; Yakoub, M.; Homann, S.; Markó, L.; Höges, S.; Tsvetkov, D.; Krannich, A.; Wundersitz, S.; Avery, E.G.; et al. Short-Chain Fatty Acid Propionate Protects from Hypertensive Cardiovascular Damage. Circulation 2019, 139, 1407–1421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.; Zhu, Q.; Lu, A.; Liu, X.; Zhang, L.; Xu, C.; Liu, X.; Li, H.; Yang, T. Sodium butyrate suppresses angiotensin II-induced hypertension by inhibition of renal (pro)renin receptor and intrarenal renin-angiotensin system. J. Hypertens. 2017, 35, 1899–1908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trehan, N.; Afonso, L.; Levine, D.L.; Levy, P.D. Vitamin D Deficiency, Supplementation, and Cardiovascular Health. Crit. Pathw. Cardiol. 2017, 16, 109–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zuo, K.; Li, J.; Xu, Q.; Hu, C.; Gao, Y.; Chen, M.; Hu, R.; Liu, Y.; Chi, H.; Yin, Q.; et al. Dysbiotic gut microbes may contribute to hypertension by limiting vitamin D production. Clin. Cardiol. 2019, 42, 710–719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Charoenngam, N.; Shirvani, A.; Kalajian, T.A.; Song, A.; Holick, M.F. The Effect of Various Doses of Oral Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Gut Microbiota in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-blinded, Dose-response Study. Anticancer Res. 2020, 40, 551–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, Y.; Nichols, R.G.; Cai, J.; Patterson, A.D.; Cantorna, M.T. Vitamin A deficiency in mice alters host and gut microbial metabolism leading to altered energy homeostasis. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2018, 54, 28–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tilg, H.; Moschen, A.R. Microbiota and diabetes: An evolving relationship. Gut 2014, 63, 1513–1521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Everard, A.; Belzer, C.; Geurts, L.; Ouwerkerk, J.P.; Druart, C.; Bindels, L.B.; Guiot, Y.; Derrien, M.; Muccioli, G.G.; Delzenne, N.M.; et al. Cross-talk between Akkermansia muciniphila and intestinal epithelium controls diet-induced obesity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 9066–9071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tsai, H.J.; Tsai, W.C.; Hung, W.C.; Hung, W.W.; Chang, C.C.; Dai, C.Y.; Tsai, Y.C. Gut Microbiota and Subclinical Cardiovascular Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Nutrients 2021, 13, 2679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mushtaq, N.; Hussain, S.; Zhang, S.; Yuan, L.; Li, H.; Ullah, S.; Wang, Y.; Xu, J. Molecular characterization of alterations in the intestinal microbiota of patients with grade 3 hypertension. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2019, 44, 513–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Crovesy, L.; Masterson, D.; Rosado, E.L. Profile of the gut microbiota of adults with obesity: A systematic review. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 74, 1251–1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marzullo, P.; Di Renzo, L.; Pugliese, G.; De Siena, M.; Barrea, L.; Muscogiuri, G.; Colao, A.; Savastano, S. From obesity through gut microbiota to cardiovascular diseases: A dangerous journey. Int. J. Obes. Suppl. 2020, 10, 35–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sawicka-Smiarowska, E.; Bondarczuk, K.; Bauer, W.; Niemira, M.; Szalkowska, A.; Raczkowska, J.; Kwasniewski, M.; Tarasiuk, E.; Dubatowka, M.; Lapinska, M.; et al. Gut Microbiome in Chronic Coronary Syndrome Patients. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 5074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turnbaugh, P.J.; Hamady, M.; Yatsunenko, T.; Cantarel, B.L.; Duncan, A.; Ley, R.E.; Sogin, M.L.; Jones, W.J.; Roe, B.A.; Affourtit, J.P.; et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 2009, 457, 480–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ley, R.E.; Backhed, F.; Turnbaugh, P.; Lozupone, C.A.; Knight, R.D.; Gordon, J.I. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 11070–11075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sze, M.A.; Schloss, P.D. Looking for a signal in the noise: Revisiting obesity and the microbiome. mBio 2016, 7, e01018-16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Pattern of the Diet | Increase in Microbiome | Decrease in Microbiome |
---|---|---|
Traditional diet |
| |
Modern industrialized diet |
|
|
Pattern of the Diet | Increase in Microbiome | Decrease in Microbiome |
---|---|---|
High fat diet |
| |
High protein plant diet |
|
|
High protein animal diet |
|
|
Dietary protein amount: 100 to 200 g/kg |
|
|
Dietary protein amount: dose greater than 200 g/kg |
| |
High carbohydrates diet |
|
|
High fiber diet |
|
|
Diet sufficient with vitamin D |
|
|
Diet sufficient with vitamin A |
| |
Diet sufficient with vitamin B12 |
|
|
Diet sufficient with vitamin E |
|
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sawicka-Śmiarowska, E.; Moniuszko-Malinowska, A.; Kamiński, K.A. Which Microbes Like My Diet and What Does It Mean for My Heart? Nutrients 2021, 13, 4146. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13114146
Sawicka-Śmiarowska E, Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Kamiński KA. Which Microbes Like My Diet and What Does It Mean for My Heart? Nutrients. 2021; 13(11):4146. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13114146
Chicago/Turabian StyleSawicka-Śmiarowska, Emilia, Anna Moniuszko-Malinowska, and Karol Adam Kamiński. 2021. "Which Microbes Like My Diet and What Does It Mean for My Heart?" Nutrients 13, no. 11: 4146. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13114146