A Systematic Literature Review on Controlled-Environment Agriculture: How Vertical Farms and Greenhouses Can Influence the Sustainability and Footprint of Urban Microclimate with Local Food Production
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Analysis
3.1. Operational Systems
3.1.1. Structures
Greenhouses
Vertical Farms
- Adaptive reusable buildings: Abandoned buildings, factories, warehouses, parking lots where they are no longer used; the existing building environment could be adjusted with the necessary equipment to accommodate a VF.
- Plant factories with AL (PFAL): Innovative structures or devoted buildings designed specifically to support VFs for industrial scale production.
- Containers: Modified shipping containers equipped with vertical stacking shelves, LED lights and digitally monitored management systems. Containers are a very popular type of VF as they can be easily relocated or even stacked on top of another container; therefore, the use of already occupied space is maximized.
- In-store farm: Small-size cabinet systems, located in places of direct consumption or purchase, such as restaurants, bars or supermarkets.
- Appliance farm: Small-scale VF construction intended for installation into the home or office.
- Deep farms: VFs located in underground tunnels, such as subway stations that are no longer in use or abandoned mineshafts.
- Balconies and rooftops: Flat areas of the buildings’ roofs and balconies that are used for simplified or more complex VF techniques.
3.1.2. Irrigation Systems
Greenhouses
Vertical Farms
Type of Crops in Greenhouses and Vertical Farms
3.2. Environmental Conditions
3.2.1. Greenhouses
3.2.2. Vertical Farms
3.3. Energy Demand
3.3.1. Greenhouses
3.3.2. Vertical Farms
3.4. Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
3.5. Resource Use Efficiency (RUE)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- CEA systems enhance the capability of producing large quantities of food all year round, without being affected by external conditions, by applying advanced technology for desired and uniform indoor climate conditions.
- Intense urbanization and urban densification are significant challenges that have a negative impact on regional sustainability and simultaneously have an important role in the energy matter flow and balance, and in general, the global energy.
- The capability of VFs to be installed in indoor spaces and close to the consumers creates a big opportunity for local food production that significantly influence the decarbonization of cities and food losses due to transportation and refrigeration, downscaling the UHI phenomenon that is observed in urban areas. A large-scale deployment of VFs in highly urbanized areas would be translated to million tons of CO2 savings worldwide.
- Simulation models would provide a meaningful insight to quantify accurately the CO2 equivalents and the energy consumption in VFs in order to evaluate their impact on the green sustainable agenda. In that way, it would be possible to accurately examine the net emissions that are generated or saved, and more precise actions could improve these bottlenecks. There is still demand for more measuring data and metrics that could evaluate and track the performance of specific quantifiable metrics for the activities and operations of VFs that could consequently improve the resources efficiency and manage the carbon footprint in urban areas towards a sustainable development agenda.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
GHG | Greenhouse gas | EC | Electrical conductivity |
CEA | Controlled-environment agriculture | NFT | Nutrient film technique |
GH | greenhouse | DFT | Deep flow technique |
VF | Vertical farm | E-W | East-west |
AL | Artificial lighting | VPD | Vapor pressure deficit |
RES | Renewable energy source | CCHP | Combined cooling, heat and power |
PAR | Photosynthetic active radiation | PPFD | Photosynthetic photon flux density |
NIR | Near-infrared radiation | DLI | Daily light integral |
UV | ultraviolet | HVAC | Heating, ventilation and air conditioning |
PFAL | Plant factory with artificial lighting | GSHP | Ground-source heat pumps |
AC | Air-conditioning | UHI | Urban heat island |
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Category | Type | Energy Consumption or Operating Power | GH Characteristics | Location | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Heating | Gas | ≈383 kWh m−2 y−1 | Four-span gable roof, double-layer PE film, 1125 m2, tomatoes, | Simulation, (Saskatoon, Canada) | [102] |
Heating | Natural gas, coal, heavy oil | ≈549 kWh m−2 y−1 | Venlo-type, double-layer PE film, 81,000 m2, peppers, h = 3.2 Wm−2 °C−1 | Leamington (Ontario, Canada) | [107] |
Heating | Coal | ≈100–291 kWh m−2 y−1 | Gothic roof, plastic-covered, 10,003 m2 | Simulation (5 regions of southern coast of Turkey) | [108] |
Heating | Gas | ≈412 kWh m−2 y−1 | Venlo-type, glass, 10,000 m2, h = 5.7 Wm−2 °C−1 | Simulation (Sweden) | [21] |
Heating | Gas | ≈144 kWh m−2 y−1 | Venlo-type, glass, 10,000 m2, h = 5.7 Wm−2 °C−1 | Simulation (Netherlands) | [21] |
Cooling | Fan-pads, circulation fans | 11.9 kWh total consumption | Glass, multi-span, 2304 m2 | Shanghai (Southeast China) | [72] |
Cooling | Natural ventilation, fogging system | ≈185 kWh m−2 y−1 (sensible cooling) | Venlo-type, glass, 10,000 m2, h = 5.7 Wm−2 °C−1 | Simulation (United Arab Emirates) | [21] |
Cooling | Natural ventilation, fogging system, heat exchanger, air-cooled chiller | ≈700 kWh m−2 y−1 (dehumidification) ≈844 kWh m−2 y−1 (sensible cooling) | Venlo-type, glass, 10,000 m2, h = 5.7 Wm−2 °C−1 | Simulation (Netherlands) | [21] |
Lighting | HPS lamps | ≈206 kWh m−2 y−1 | Venlo-type, glass, 10,000 m2, h = 5.7 Wm−2 °C−1 | Simulation (Sweden) | [21] |
Lighting | 600 W HPS lamps | 90 Wm−2 for 48 μmol m−2s−1, 54 Wm−2 for 24 μmolm−2s−1 | ≈75 m2 compartment in GH | University of Aarhus (Denmark) | [109] |
Lighting | HPS lamps, LEDs | 19,578 kWh (HPS) and 4697 (LEDs) for five months | Glass, two different light treatments in ≈18 m2 each, tomatoes | West Lafayette (USA) | [110] |
Ventilation | Fan motor | ≈9.7 kWh m−2 (from March to October) | Glass, 500 m2 | South-West Greece | [111] |
Irrigation | Pump water from deep wells | ≈s3 kWh m−2 | 26 GHs study, average 2000 m2, basil | Esfahan (Iran) | [112] |
Category | Type | Energy Consumption | Production Area | Location of VF | Sources |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lighting | 600 W HPS lamps | 1374 kWh m−2 y−1 | 506 m2 | Simulation | [4] |
Lighting | LED (250 μmol m−2 s−1 light intensity) | 560 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1296 m2 | Simulation (Netherlands) | [117] |
Lighting | LEDs | 26,490 kWh y−1 for 60,000 plants’ production | N/A | Basement of an urban residential building in Stockholm | [119] |
Lighting | LED (500 μmol m−2 s−1 light intensity) | ≈1128 kWh m−2 y−1 | 50,000 m2 | Simulation (Sweden) | [21] |
Cooling | HVAC (forced circulation), fancoil unit, air-cooled chiller | ≈86 kWh m−2 y−1 (Sensible cooling) ≈506 kWh m−2 y−1 (LED cooling) | 50,000 m2 | Simulation (Sweden) | [21] |
Cooling | HVAC system | ≈48 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1891 m2 | Simulation (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia) | [120] |
Cooling | Chiller | ≈404 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1712 m2 | Simulation (Minneapolis, USA, cold-humid climate) | [118] |
Heating | Natural gas boiler | ≈932 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1712 m2 | Simulation (Minneapolis, USA, cold-humid climate) | [118] |
Heating | HVAC system | ≈29 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1891 m2 | Simulation (Seattle, USA) | [120] |
Dehumidification | HVAC system | ≈222 kWh m−2 y−1 | 50,000 m2 | Simulation (Sweden) | [21] |
Dehumidification | HVAC system | 370 kWh m−2 y−1 | 1296 m2 | Simulation (United Arab Emirates) | [117] |
Irrigation | Pump | ≈18 kWh m−2 y−1 | 506 m2 | Simulation | [4] |
Irrigation | Pump | 2190 kWh y−1 for 60,000 plants’ production | N/A | Basement of an urban residential building in Stockholm | [119] |
Resources | GH | Sources | VF | Sources |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 4.5–10.5 kWh kgFW−1 | [145] | 15.6–20.4 kWh kgFW−1 | [145] |
Water | ≈10–20 L kgFW−1 | [21] | 1 L kgFW−1 | [21] |
Light | Sunlight and supplementary lighting | AL | ||
Yield | 41 kg m−2 y −1 | [10] | 150 kg m−2 y−1 | [148] |
Land use | 365 days per year | [149] | 365 days per year | [149] |
Harvests | 6–7 per year | [149] | 8–12 per year | [149] |
CO2 use | ≈14–26 kgCO2 kgDW−1 | [21] | ≈2.1 kgCO2 kgDW−1 | [21] |
CO2 utilization efficiency | Loses 0.31–0.35 kgCO2 kgFW−1 | [145] | 0.87 (N = 0.01 h−1) | [53] |
CO2 emissions | (a) 0.574 kgCO2 kgFW−1 (conventional GH) (b) 0.352 kgCO2 kgFW−1 (advanced GH) | [150] | (c) 5.7 kgCO2 kgFW−1 (conventional VF) (d) 0.158 kgCO2 kgFW−1 (green VF) | [150] |
Pesticide | Use of insect screens for reducing pesticide applications | [43] | No use (due to sterilized cultivation environment) | [53] |
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Vatistas, C.; Avgoustaki, D.D.; Bartzanas, T. A Systematic Literature Review on Controlled-Environment Agriculture: How Vertical Farms and Greenhouses Can Influence the Sustainability and Footprint of Urban Microclimate with Local Food Production. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 1258. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081258
Vatistas C, Avgoustaki DD, Bartzanas T. A Systematic Literature Review on Controlled-Environment Agriculture: How Vertical Farms and Greenhouses Can Influence the Sustainability and Footprint of Urban Microclimate with Local Food Production. Atmosphere. 2022; 13(8):1258. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081258
Chicago/Turabian StyleVatistas, Christos, Dafni Despoina Avgoustaki, and Thomas Bartzanas. 2022. "A Systematic Literature Review on Controlled-Environment Agriculture: How Vertical Farms and Greenhouses Can Influence the Sustainability and Footprint of Urban Microclimate with Local Food Production" Atmosphere 13, no. 8: 1258. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081258