Immune Response after SARS-CoV-2 Infection with Residual Post-COVID Symptoms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Booster Doses and Immunogenicity
2.3. Omicron BA.5/BA.4 Immunogenicity
2.4. Outcome Measures
2.5. SARS-CoV-2 Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction
2.6. Serological Assays
2.7. Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Isolation and Collection
2.8. T Cell Immunophenotyping Analysis
2.9. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics and Clinical Manifestations
3.2. Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2 Variants
3.3. Neutralizing Antibody Responses
3.4. Immune Response after a Booster Vaccine
3.5. Characterization and Distribution of Memory T Cell Subsets
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Healthy COVID-19 Convalescents (HC) Group (n = 134) | Long COVID (LC) Group (n = 158) | p-Value ‡ | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | (%) | n | (%) | Long COVID Symptoms | p-Value † | |||||||
3 Major Symptoms (n = 132) | 1–2 Major Symptoms (n = 26) | |||||||||||
n | (%) | n | (%) | |||||||||
Male/Female | 45/89 | 33.6/66.4 | 22/136 | 13.9/86.1 | 18/114 | 13.6/86.4 | 4/22 | 15.4/84.6 | 0.814 | <0.001 | ||
Age (yr.), mean (SD) | 36.3 | (9.6) | 38.4 | (8.4) | 38.7 | (8.5) | 37.0 | (7.5) | 0.338 | 0.078 | ||
18–30 | 42 | 31.3 | 24 | 15.2 | 19 | 14.4 | 5 | 19.2 | 0.344 | 0.362 | ||
31–45 | 72 | 53.7 | 99 | 62.7 | 81 | 61.4 | 18 | 69.2 | ||||
>45 | 20 | 14.9 | 35 | 22.2 | 32 | 24.2 | 3 | 11.5 | ||||
Time from symptom onset to COVID detection, months | 0.353 | |||||||||||
1–2 | 40 | 29.9 | 37 | 23.4 | 34 | 25.8 | 3 | 11.5 | 0.147 | |||
3 | 60 | 44.8 | 83 | 52.5 | 65 | 49.2 | 18 | 69.2 | ||||
>3 | 34 | 25.4 | 38 | 24.1 | 33 | 25.0 | 5 | 19.2 | ||||
Types of hospital admission | 0.024 | 0.123 | ||||||||||
Home isolation | 130 | 97.0 | 157 | 99.4 | 132 | 100.0 | 25 | 96.2 | ||||
Hospitel | 4 | 3.0 | 1 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.00 | 1 | 3.8 | ||||
COVID-19 detection | 0.379 | 0.362 | ||||||||||
RT-PCR § | 129 | 96.3 | 146 | 92.4 | 122 | 92.4 | 24 | 92.3 | ||||
ATK ¶ | 5 | 3.7 | 12 | 7.6 | 10 | 7.6 | 2 | 7.7 | ||||
Cycle threshold **, median (IQR) | 20.7 | (18.2–25.1) | 19.7 | (18.0–21.9) | 19.7 | (17.7–22.1) | 19.5 | (18.5–21.0) | 0.921 | 0.039 | ||
<20 | 52 | 43.7 | 80 | 55.9 | 64 | 54.2 | 16 | 64.0 | 0.466 | 0.037 | ||
20–30 | 51 | 42.9 | 55 | 38.5 | 48 | 40.7 | 7 | 28.0 | ||||
>30 | 16 | 13.4 | 8 | 5.6 | 6 | 5.1 | 2 | 8.0 | ||||
Envelope, median (IQR) | 18.4 | (16.3–23.3) | 17.8 | (16.5–19.9) | 17.7 | (16.3–19.7) | 18.1 | (17.0–19.9) | 0.588 | 0.017 | ||
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), median (IQR) | 19.9 | (18.0–24.8) | 19.2 | (17.9–22.5) | 19.4 | (17.8–21.4) | 18.9 | (18.1–21.5) | 0.670 | 0.807 | ||
Presence of comorbidities | ||||||||||||
None | 121 | 90.3 | 125 | 79.1 | 104 | 78.8 | 21 | 80.8 | 0.820 | 0.009 | ||
Hypertension | 5 | 3.7 | 15 | 9.5 | 10 | 7.6 | 5 | 19.2 | 0.064 | 0.052 | ||
Obesity | 3 | 2.2 | 13 | 8.2 | 12 | 9.1 | 1 | 3.8 | 0.374 | 0.025 | ||
Diabetes mellitus | 5 | 3.7 | 6 | 3.8 | 5 | 3.8 | 1 | 3.8 | 0.989 | 0.976 | ||
Cancer | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 1.9 | 3 | 2.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.349 | 0.109 | ||
Chronic respiratory disease | 2 | 1.5 | 3 | 1.9 | 3 | 2.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.438 | 0.791 | ||
Kidney disease | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 0.6 | 1 | 0.8 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.656 | 0.356 | ||
Lifestyle | ||||||||||||
Smoking | 0.027 | 0.016 | ||||||||||
Never | 114 | 85.1 | 144 | 91.1 | 122 | 92.4 | 22 | 84.6 | ||||
Stop smoking | 12 | 9.0 | 5 | 3.2 | 2 | 1.5 | 3 | 11.5 | ||||
Smoking | 8 | 6.0 | 9 | 5.7 | 8 | 6.1 | 1 | 3.9 | ||||
Vaccination | 0.485 | 0.306 | ||||||||||
0–2 doses | 13 | 9.7 | 11 | 7.0 | 9 | 6.8 | 2 | 7.7 | ||||
1 booster dose | 66 | 49.3 | 64 | 40.5 | 52 | 39.4 | 12 | 46.2 | ||||
2 booster doses | 55 | 41.0 | 83 | 52.5 | 71 | 53.8 | 12 | 46.2 | ||||
Medication | 0.922 | 0.048 | ||||||||||
No treatment | 9 | 6.7 | 3 | 1.9 | 3 | 2.3 | 0 | 0.0 | ||||
Symptomatic treatment | 53 | 39.6 | 51 | 32.5 | 42 | 32.1 | 9 | 34.6 | ||||
Symptomatic + Favipiravir treatment | 69 | 51.5 | 94 | 59.8 | 79 | 60.3 | 15 | 57.7 | ||||
Symptomatic + Favipiravir treatment + Dexamethasone | 3 | 2.2 | 9 | 5.7 | 7 | 5.3 | 2 | 7.7 | ||||
Long COVID symptoms | ||||||||||||
Fatigue/myalgia | 0 | 0.0 | 145 | 91.8 | 126 | 95.5 | 19 | 73.1 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Breathlessness | 0 | 0.0 | 118 | 74.7 | 116 | 87.9 | 2 | 7.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Anorexia | 0 | 0.0 | 87 | 55.1 | 85 | 64.4 | 2 | 7.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Problem with concentration | 0 | 0.0 | 123 | 77.8 | 116 | 87.9 | 7 | 26.9 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Problem with memory | 0 | 0.0 | 101 | 63.9 | 99 | 75.0 | 2 | 7.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Headache | 40 | 29.8 | 88 | 55.7 | 75 | 56.8 | 13 | 50.0 | 0.522 | <0.001 | ||
Cough/chest pain/chest discomfort | 52 | 38.8 | 111 | 70.3 | 92 | 69.7 | 19 | 73.1 | 0.730 | <0.001 | ||
Loss of smell/taste | 23 | 17.2 | 52 | 32.9 | 43 | 32.6 | 9 | 34.6 | 0.840 | 0.001 | ||
Muscle pain/joint pain | 37 | 27.6 | 91 | 57.6 | 78 | 59.1 | 13 | 50.0 | 0.391 | <0.001 | ||
Diarrhea | 20 | 14.9 | 46 | 29.1 | 39 | 29.5 | 7 | 26.9 | 0.788 | 0.004 |
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Pongkunakorn, T.; Manosan, T.; Surawit, A.; Ophakas, S.; Mongkolsucharitkul, P.; Pumeiam, S.; Suta, S.; Pinsawas, B.; Sookrung, N.; Saelim, N.; et al. Immune Response after SARS-CoV-2 Infection with Residual Post-COVID Symptoms. Vaccines 2023, 11, 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11091413
Pongkunakorn T, Manosan T, Surawit A, Ophakas S, Mongkolsucharitkul P, Pumeiam S, Suta S, Pinsawas B, Sookrung N, Saelim N, et al. Immune Response after SARS-CoV-2 Infection with Residual Post-COVID Symptoms. Vaccines. 2023; 11(9):1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11091413
Chicago/Turabian StylePongkunakorn, Tanyaporn, Thamonwan Manosan, Apinya Surawit, Suphawan Ophakas, Pichanun Mongkolsucharitkul, Sureeporn Pumeiam, Sophida Suta, Bonggochpass Pinsawas, Nitat Sookrung, Nawannaporn Saelim, and et al. 2023. "Immune Response after SARS-CoV-2 Infection with Residual Post-COVID Symptoms" Vaccines 11, no. 9: 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11091413