Multiple Pathways of Genome Plasticity Leading to Development of Antibiotic Resistance
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Integrons Are Major Contributors to the Development and Dissemination of Multiple Resistances in Bacteria
2.1. Resistance Integrons
2.2. Chromosomal Integrons
3. Connections between Integron Rearrangements and Horizontal Gene Transfer
3.1. Integron Integrase Expression Is Regulated by the SOS Response
3.2. Conjugation Induces the SOS Response and Integrase Expression
3.3. Natural Transformation induces the SOS Response and Integrase Expression
3.4. Integrating Conjugative Elements, Integron Cassette Rearrangements and the SOS Response
3.4.1. ICE Transfer Induces Integron Integrase Expression
3.4.2. DNA Damaging Agents Increase ICE Plasticity
4. Integron Rearrangements and Cassette Expression are Triggered by Stress Caused by Carbon Source Limitation
4.1. Carbon Catabolite Control Regulates Natural Competence
4.2. Carbon Catabolite Control Regulates SI Integrase Expression
5. Integron Rearrangements are Triggered by Stress Caused by Exposure to Sub-Minimal Inhibitory Antibiotic Concentrations
5.1. General Biological Effects of Sub-MICs of Antibiotics
5.2. Sub-MICs of DNA Damaging Antibiotics Induce the SOS Response
5.3. Sub-MICs of Non-DNA-Damaging Antibiotics Induce the SOS Response in Various Bacterial Species
5.4. Induction of the SOS Response Promotes Acquisition, Maintenance and Spread of Antibiotic Resistances
5.4.1. Acquisition of Antibiotic Resistance
5.4.2. Spread of Antibiotic Resistance
5.4.3. Conservation of Multiple Resistances
5.5. Induction of the SOS Response Promotes the Development of Persister Cells
5.6. Linking the SOS Response, Reactive Oxygen Species Formation and Oxidative Stress Response in the Presence of Sub-MICs of Antibiotics
5.6.1. Sub-MICs of Aminoglycosides Lead to ROS Formation in V. Cholerae
5.6.2. Sub-MIC Driven ROS Formation Leads to Increased Resistance Development
5.6.3. Involvement of RpoS in the Response to Sub-MICs of Antibiotics
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
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Baharoglu, Z.; Garriss, G.; Mazel, D. Multiple Pathways of Genome Plasticity Leading to Development of Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics 2013, 2, 288-315. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics2020288
Baharoglu Z, Garriss G, Mazel D. Multiple Pathways of Genome Plasticity Leading to Development of Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics. 2013; 2(2):288-315. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics2020288
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaharoglu, Zeynep, Geneviève Garriss, and Didier Mazel. 2013. "Multiple Pathways of Genome Plasticity Leading to Development of Antibiotic Resistance" Antibiotics 2, no. 2: 288-315. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics2020288