Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Forested Landscape
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Classification
2.3. Estimation of Value of Ecosystem Services and Changes in Value Due to Land Use and Land Cover Changes
3. Results
3.1. Land Use and Land Cover Change Analysis
3.2. Estimation of Ecosystem Services Values and Changes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Path/Row | 2001 (ETM+) | 2016 (OLI) |
---|---|---|
141/41 | 24 October | 25 October |
142/41 | 31 October | 22 March |
143/41 | 25 December | 23 October |
144/40 | 3 March | 14 April |
Sn | Land Cover | Description |
---|---|---|
1. | Forests | Land dominated by trees (Evergreen broadleaf forest, deciduous forest) |
2. | Shrublands | Bushes, grasslands, shrub cover and degraded forests |
3. | Agriculture | Land under cultivation of agricultural crops |
4. | Urban | Urban and rural settlements, commercial areas, and built-up |
5. | Water Bodies | Rivers, wetlands, and lakes |
6. | Barren | Rocks, sands, barren land |
Sn | Ecosystem Services | Description |
---|---|---|
Provisioning | ||
1. | Food Production | Food products derived from plants, animals, and microbes |
2. | Raw materials | Materials such as timber, fuelwoods, hemp, dung, fibers |
3. | Genetic resources | Genes and genetic information |
4. | Water supply | Provision of water by watersheds, reservoirs and aquifers |
Regulating | ||
5. | Climate regulation | Sequester and store carbon or emit carbon that affects temperature |
6. | Gas regulation | Regulate atmospheric chemical composition |
7. | Disturbance regulation | Control hazards such as floods and landslides |
8. | Waste treatment | Filter and decompose organic wastes |
9. | Erosion control | Soil retention by preventing soil loss by wind or runoff |
10. | Pollination | Reproduction in plants by transportation of pollen |
11. | Water regulation | Regulate hydrological flows |
12. | Biological control | Control populations of pest and disease vector |
Cultural | ||
13. | Cultural | Aesthetic, educational, and scientific opportunities. |
14. | Recreation | Provide recreational activities |
Supporting | ||
15. | Nutrient cycling | Store, cycle, process, and acquisition of nutrients |
16. | Soil formation | Formation of organic and inorganic soil |
17. | Habitat/refugia | Provide habitat for different resident and migrating plants and animals |
Sn | LULC Class | Equivalent Biome Type | Total Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) (in USD/ha/year.) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Costanza et al. (1997) | Modified | |||
1. | Forests | Tropical Forests | 2007 | 871 |
2. | Shrubland | Grass/rangelands | 232 | 244 |
3. | Agriculture | Cropland | 92 | 92 |
4. | Waterbodies | Water | 8498 | 2699 |
5. | Urban | Urban | 0 | 0 |
6. | Barren | Ice/Rock | 0 | 0 |
Sn | Ecosystem Service Types | Agriculture | Forests | Shrubland | Waterbodies | Urban and Barren | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Provisioning | |||||||
1. | Food Production | 54 * | 7 | 67 | 50 | - | 178 |
2. | Raw materials | - | 315 | - | - | - | 315 |
3. | Genetic resources | - | 41 * | - | - | - | 41 |
4. | Water supply | - | 8 | - | 1872 | - | 1880 |
Regulating | |||||||
5. | Climate regulation | - | 245 | - | - | - | 245 |
6. | Gas regulation | - | - | 7 * | - | - | 7 |
7. | Disturbance regulation | - | 5 * | - | - | - | 5 |
8. | Waste treatment | - | 87 * | 87 | 81 | - | 255 |
9. | Erosion control | - | 86 | 29 * | - | - | 115 |
10. | Pollination | 14 * | 33 | 25 | - | - | 72 |
11. | Water regulation | - | 17 | 3 * | 378 | - | 398 |
12. | Biological control | 24 * | - | 23 | - | - | 47 |
Cultural | |||||||
13. | Cultural | - | 2 * | - | - | - | 2 |
14. | Recreation | - | 1 | 2 | 318 | - | 321 |
Supporting | |||||||
15. | Nutrient cycling | - | 14 | - | - | - | 14 |
16. | Soil formation | - | 10 * | 1 | - | - | 11 |
17. | Habitat/refugia | - | - | - | - | - | |
Sum of ES for LULC | 92 | 871 | 244 | 2699 |
Sn | LULC | Area (ha) 2001 | % | Area (ha) 2016 | % | Change (ha) 2001–2016 | % Change |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Urban | 20,503 | 1 | 46,729 | 2 | 26,226 | 127 |
2. | Agriculture | 956,983 | 37 | 927,736 | 35 | −29,247 | −3 |
3. | Forests | 1,151,910 | 44 | 1,143,170 | 44 | −8740 | −0.7 |
4. | Shrublands | 312,180 | 12 | 330,288 | 13 | 18,108 | 6 |
5. | Barren | 134,186 | 5 | 129,851 | 5 | −4335 | −3 |
6. | Waterbodies | 39,821 | 2 | 37,806 | 1 | −2015 | −5 |
LULC | Urban | Agri | Forests | Shrubland | Barren |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agriculture | 26,226 | - | 29,300 | 20,200 | 13,200 |
Forests | - | 19,400 | - | 59,800 | - |
Shrubland | 22,300 | 37,700 | - | - | |
Barren | - | 15,600 | - | - | - |
Waterbodies | - | - | - | - | 2015 |
LULC | ESV (in Million USD per Year) | ESV Change (in Million USD per Year) | |
---|---|---|---|
2001 | 2016 | 2001–2016 | |
Agriculture | 88 | 85 | −3 |
Forest | 1003 | 996 | −8 |
Shrubland | 76 | 81 | 4 |
Water | 107 | 102 | −5 |
Total | 1275 | 1264 | −11 |
Sn | Ecosystem Services | 2001 | 2016 | Change | Percent Change |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Climate regulation | 282 | 280 | −2 | −2.14 |
2. | Gas regulation | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0.13 |
3. | Disturbance regulation | 6 | 6 | 0 | −0.04 |
4. | Water regulation | 36 | 34 | −1 | −0.86 |
5. | Water supply | 84 | 79 | −4 | −3.84 |
6. | Erosion control | 108 | 108 | 0 | −0.23 |
7. | Soil formation | 12 | 12 | 0 | −0.07 |
8. | Nutrient cycling | 16 | 16 | 0 | −0.12 |
9. | Waste treatment | 131 | 131 | 1 | 0.65 |
10. | Pollination | 59 | 59 | 0 | −0.25 |
11. | Biological control | 30 | 30 | 0 | −0.29 |
12. | Habitat | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 |
13. | Food Production | 83 | 82 | −1 | −0.53 |
14. | Raw materials | 363 | 360 | −3 | −2.75 |
15. | Genetic resources | 47 | 47 | 0 | −0.36 |
16. | Recreation | 14 | 14 | −1 | −0.61 |
17. | Cultural | 2 | 2 | 0 | −0.02 |
Total | 1275 | 1262 | −0.89 |
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Sharma, R.; Rimal, B.; Baral, H.; Nehren, U.; Paudyal, K.; Sharma, S.; Rijal, S.; Ranpal, S.; Acharya, R.P.; Alenazy, A.A.; et al. Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Forested Landscape. Resources 2019, 8, 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010018
Sharma R, Rimal B, Baral H, Nehren U, Paudyal K, Sharma S, Rijal S, Ranpal S, Acharya RP, Alenazy AA, et al. Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Forested Landscape. Resources. 2019; 8(1):18. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010018
Chicago/Turabian StyleSharma, Roshan, Bhagawat Rimal, Himlal Baral, Udo Nehren, Kiran Paudyal, Sunil Sharma, Sushila Rijal, Surendra Ranpal, Ram Prasad Acharya, Amer A. Alenazy, and et al. 2019. "Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Forested Landscape" Resources 8, no. 1: 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010018
APA StyleSharma, R., Rimal, B., Baral, H., Nehren, U., Paudyal, K., Sharma, S., Rijal, S., Ranpal, S., Acharya, R. P., Alenazy, A. A., & Kandel, P. (2019). Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Forested Landscape. Resources, 8(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010018