The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth with Chronic Pain and Their Parents: A Longitudinal Examination of Who Are Most at Risk
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Pain Interference
2.3.2. Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms
2.3.3. Personality Traits
2.4. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Descriptive Statistics
3.2.1. Changes in Pain and Mental Health from pre- to during the COVID-19 Pandemic
3.2.2. Pain Interference
3.2.3. Depression
3.2.4. Anxiety
3.2.5. Depression
3.2.6. Anxiety
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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(n = 84 Youth; n = 90 Parents) | |
---|---|
Youth age (M years, SD) | 14.39 (2.21) |
Youth gender (% female) | 67.8 |
Parent gender (% female) | 86.7 |
Ethnicity | |
White | 83.5 |
Two or more ethnicities | 8.8 |
Other | 7.7 |
Aboriginal | 4.4 |
Latin American | 2.2 |
Black | 2.2 |
Chinese | 2.2 |
South-East Asian | 2.2 |
Filipino | 1.1 |
Arab/West Asian | 1.1 |
Did not want to answer | 2.2 |
Annual household income (%) | |
<$10,000–$29,999 | 3.3 |
$30,000–$59,999 | 6.7 |
$60,000–$89,999 | 15.6 |
>$90,000 | 62.2 |
Did not want to answer | 12.2 |
Parent education level (%) | |
High school or less | 7.8 |
Vocational school/some college | 20.0 |
College, bachelors degree | 52.2 |
Graduate/professional school | 20.0 |
Pre-COVID | During COVID | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | M | n | M | Mean Difference | SD | 95% CI | t | df | p | |
Parents | ||||||||||
Depression | 88 | 3.28 | 88 | 4.22 | −0.93 | 2.79 | −1.52 to −0.34 | −3.13 | 87 | <0.01 ** |
Anxiety | 88 | 6.42 | 88 | 6.65 | −0.23 | 3.05 | −0.87 to 0.42 | −0.70 | 87 | 0.486 |
COVID-19 impact | 90 | 50.49 | 13.57 | |||||||
Neuroticism | 89 | 21.30 | 6.27 | |||||||
Extroversion | 89 | 31.53 | 6.38 | |||||||
Conscientiousness | 89 | 35.48 | 5.30 | |||||||
Youth | ||||||||||
Pain interference | 81 | 55.27 | 81 | 52.10 | 3.17 | 9.37 | 1.10 to 5.24 | 3.05 | 80 | <0.01 ** |
Depression | 80 | 55.26 | 80 | 54.92 | 0.34 | 14.54 | −2.89 to 3.58 | 0.21 | 80 | 0.833 |
Anxiety | 72 | 51.17 | 72 | 47.54 | 3.63 | 14.21 | 0.29 to 6.97 | 2.17 | 71 | 0.034 * |
COVID-19 impact | 84 | 51.90 | 13.49 | |||||||
Neuroticism | 84 | 25.25 | 6.76 | |||||||
Extroversion | 84 | 27.78 | 6.72 | |||||||
Conscientiousness | 84 | 30.08 | 6.42 |
β | B | SE | T | R2 | 95% CI | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1: Youth depression and Neuroticism | |||||||
Block 1 | 0.45 | <0.01 | |||||
Gender | 0.03 | 1.14 | 3.52 | 0.32 | −5.88 to 8.15 | 0.75 | |
Age | 0.15 | 1.24 | 0.76 | 1.64 | −0.27 to 2.76 | 0.11 | |
Pre-COVID depression | 0.62 ** | 0.72 | 0.10 | 6.64 | 0.51 to 0.92 | <0.01 | |
Block 2 | 0.54 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.12 | 1.48 | −0.06 to 0.42 | 0.14 | |
Neuroticism | 0.31 ** | 0.85 | 0.25 | 3.43 | 0.36 to 1.34 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.55 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Neuroticism | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 1.22 | −0.01 to 0.06 | 0.23 | |
Model 2: Youth depression and Extroversion | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.52 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.12 | 1.71 | −0.04 to 0.46 | 0.09 | |
Extroversion | −0.24 ** | −0.65 | 0.24 | −2.74 | −1.13 to −0.18 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.54 | ||||||
COVID impact * Extroversion | −0.14 | −0.03 | 0.02 | −1.75 | −0.05 to 0.004 | 0.09 | |
Model 3: Youth depression and Conscientiousness | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.54 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 1.04 | −0.12 to 0.37 | 0.30 | |
Conscientiousness | −0.28 ** | −0.83 | 0.25 | −3.35 | −1.32 to −0.34 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.54 | ||||||
COVID impact * Conscientiousness | −0.02 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.20 | −0.05 to 0.04 | 0.85 | |
β | B | SE | T | R2 | 95% CI | p | |
Model 4: Youth anxiety and Neuroticism | |||||||
Block 1 | 0.40 | <0.01 | |||||
Gender | 0.08 | 2.77 | 3.33 | 0.83 | −3.87 to 9.41 | 0.41 | |
Age | 0.18 | 1.27 | 0.68 | 1.86 | −0.09 to 2.64 | 0.08 | |
Pre-COVID anxiety | 0.56 ** | 0.38 | 0.07 | 5.72 | 0.25 to 0.51 | <0.01 | |
Block 2 | 0.64 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.20 * | 0.22 | 0.09 | 2.42 | 0.04 to 0.40 | 0.019 | |
Neuroticism | 0.52 ** | 1.19 | 0.20 | 6.08 | 0.80 to 1.58 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.65 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Neuroticism | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 1.53 | −0.01 to 0.05 | 0.13 | |
Model 5: Youth anxiety and Extroversion | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.52 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.24 * | 0.26 | 0.10 | 2.53 | 0.06 to 0.47 | 0.014 | |
Extroversion | −0.28 ** | −0.62 | 0.20 | −3.15 | −1.01 to −0.23 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.54 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Extroversion | −0.14 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.69 | −0.04 to 0.004 | 0.10 | |
Model 6: Youth anxiety and Conscientiousness | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.49 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.11 | 1.70 | −0.03 to 0.40 | 0.09 | |
Conscientiousness | −0.22 * | −0.51 | 0.22 | −2.29 | −0.95 to −0.07 | 0.03 | |
Block 3 | 0.53 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Conscientiousness | −0.19 * | −0.05 | 0.02 | −2.17 | −0.09 to −0.003 | 0.034 | |
β | B | SE | T | R2 | 95% CI | p | |
Model 7: Youth Pain Interference and Neuroticism | |||||||
Block 1 | 0.25 | <0.01 | |||||
Gender | −0.003 | −0.06 | 1.99 | −0.03 | −4.02 to 3.89 | 0.97 | |
Age | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.43 | 0.82 | −0.50 to 1.20 | 0.41 | |
Pre-COVID pain interference | 0.48 ** | 0.49 | 0.11 | 4.60 | 0.28 to 0.70 | <0.01 | |
Block 2 | 0.33 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.27 * | 0.19 | 0.07 | 2.59 | 0.04 to 0.33 | 0.01 | |
Neuroticism | 0.19 | 0.26 | 0.14 | 1.80 | −0.03 to 0.55 | 0.08 | |
Block 3 | 0.34 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Neuroticism | −0.10 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.97 | −0.03 to 0.01 | 0.34 | |
Model 8: Youth Pain Interference and Extroversion | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.35 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.30 ** | 0.20 | 0.07 | 2.82 | 0.06 to 0.35 | <0.01 | |
Extroversion | −0.21 * | −0.29 | 0.14 | −2.15 | −0.57 to −0.02 | 0.04 | |
Block 3 | 0.35 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Extroversion | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 1.00 | −0.01 to 0.03 | 0.32 | |
Model 9: Youth Pain Interference and Conscientiousness | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.34 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.24 * | 0.17 | 0.07 | 2.28 | 0.02 to 0.31 | 0.03 | |
Conscientiousness | −0.19 | −0.28 | 0.15 | −1.93 | −0.57 to 0.01 | 0.06 | |
Block 3 | 0.35 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Conscientiousness | 0.06 | 0.52 |
β | B | SE | T | R2 | 95% CI | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1: Parent depression and Neuroticism | |||||||
Block 1 | 0.59 | <0.01 | |||||
Gender | −0.12 | −1.30 | 0.77 | −1.68 | −2.83 to 0.23 | 0.10 | |
Pre-COVID depression | 0.77 ** | 0.98 | 0.09 | 10.95 | 0.80 to 1.16 | <0.01 | |
Block 2 | 0.61 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.89 | −0.03 to 0.07 | 0.37 | |
Neuroticism | 0.15 * | 0.10 | 0.05 | 2.14 | 0.01 to 0.20 | 0.04 | |
Block 3 | 0.62 | <0.01 | |||||
COVID impact * Neuroticism | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.003 | 1.61 | −0.001 to 0.01 | 0.11 | |
Model 2: Parent depression and Extroversion | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.63 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.88 | −0.03 to 0.06 | 0.38 | |
Extroversion | −0.20 ** | −0.13 | 0.05 | −2.88 | −0.22 to −0.04 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.64 | ||||||
COVID impact * Extroversion | −0.12 | −0.01 | 0.004 | −1.83 | −0.01 to 0.001 | 0.07 | |
Model 3: Parent depression and Conscientiousness | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.59 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.77 | −0.03 to 0.07 | 0.44 | |
Conscientiousness | −0.03 | −0.03 | 0.06 | −0.43 | −0.14 to 0.09 | 0.67 | |
Block 3 | 0.60 | ||||||
COVID impact * Conscientiousness | −0.11 | −0.01 | 0.004 | −1.56 | −0.02 to 0.002 | 0.12 | |
Model 4: Parent anxiety and Neuroticism | |||||||
Block 1 | 0.53 | ||||||
Gender | −0.11 | −1.20 | 0.81 | −1.48 | −2.80 to 0.41 | 0.14 | |
Pre-COVID anxiety | 0.73 ** | 0.78 | 0.08 | 9.73 | 0.62 to 0.94 | <0.01 | |
Block 2 | 0.63 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.18 * | 0.06 | 0.02 | 2.60 | 0.01 to 0.10 | 0.01 | |
Neuroticism | 0.29 ** | 0.19 | 0.05 | 3.97 | 0.10 to 0.29 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.65 | ||||||
COVID impact * Neuroticism | 0.16 * | 0.01 | 0.003 | 2.34 | 0.001 to 0.01 | 0.02 | |
Model 5: Parent anxiety and Extroversion | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.64 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.16 * | 0.05 | 0.02 | 2.45 | 0.01 to 0.09 | 0.02 | |
Extroversion | −0.30 ** | −0.20 | 0.04 | −4.60 | −0.28 to −0.11 | <0.01 | |
Block 3 | 0.68 | ||||||
COVID impact * Extroversion | −0.20 ** | −0.01 | 0.003 | −3.23 | −0.02 to −0.004 | <0.01 | |
Model 6: Parent anxiety and Conscientiousness | |||||||
Block 2 | 0.58 | ||||||
COVID impact | 0.16 * | 0.05 | 0.02 | 2.16 | 0.004 to 0.10 | 0.03 | |
Conscientiousness | −0.16 * | −0.13 | 0.06 | −2.25 | −0.24 to −0.12 | 0.03 | |
Block 3 | 0.60 | ||||||
COVID impact * Conscientiousness | −0.15 * | −0.01 | 0.004 | −2.10 | −0.02 to 0 | 0.04 |
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Birnie, K.A.; Kopala-Sibley, D.C.; Pavlova, M.; Nania, C.G.; Bernier, E.; Stinson, J.N.; Noel, M. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth with Chronic Pain and Their Parents: A Longitudinal Examination of Who Are Most at Risk. Children 2022, 9, 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9050745
Birnie KA, Kopala-Sibley DC, Pavlova M, Nania CG, Bernier E, Stinson JN, Noel M. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth with Chronic Pain and Their Parents: A Longitudinal Examination of Who Are Most at Risk. Children. 2022; 9(5):745. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9050745
Chicago/Turabian StyleBirnie, Kathryn A., Daniel C. Kopala-Sibley, Maria Pavlova, Cara G. Nania, Emily Bernier, Jennifer N. Stinson, and Melanie Noel. 2022. "The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth with Chronic Pain and Their Parents: A Longitudinal Examination of Who Are Most at Risk" Children 9, no. 5: 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9050745