Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Definitions and Regulations
Countries | Level | Types of Banned Plastic Materials | References |
---|---|---|---|
Canada, Costa Rica, Taiwan, Belize, India, and the USA (California and Florida) | National bans | Single-use plastics (SUPs), including plastic bags, straws, and cutlery | [52] |
The Netherlands, Tanzania, Australia, Italy, South Korea, New Zealand, the UK, the USA, and Canada | National bans | Microbead plastics | |
25 African countries | National bans | Plastic bags | [53] |
Australia | National bans | Lightweight plastic bags | |
Papua New Guinea | National bans | Nonbiodegradable plastic bags |
3. The Common Misconception in the Definition of Biodegradable and Compostable Polymers
Brief Overview of Degradation Pathways for Polymers
4. Research on Bioplastics
4.1. Protein-Based Bioplastics
4.2. Polysaccharide-Based Bioplastics
4.2.1. Cellulose-Based Bioplastics
4.2.2. Starch-Based Bioplastics
4.3. Synthetic Bioplastics
5. Applications
- Coating—bioplastic is used as a coating on the substrate material, forming a multi-layer material to increase barrier functions, enhance processability (printability and sealability), functionalize the surface, or serve another duty. Typically, a coating is accomplished by extrusion, film casting, or common lacquer application techniques [126];
- Filler—bio-based materials serve as fillers that can reduce material costs and/or increase the ratio of renewable resources in bioplastic packaging materials [129].
5.1. Processing
- Extrusion coating and film production (casting and blown film)
- Injection molding (I)
- Thermoforming (T)
- Blow molding (B)
5.2. Properties
5.2.1. Biodegradability
- Category 1—marine biodegradable (claimed to be biodegradable in the marine environment);
- Category 2—home compostable (claimed to be biodegradable in soil without optimized composting conditions);
- Category 3—industrially compostable (according to EN 13432);
- Category 4—non-biodegradable (within the time frame specified by definition).
5.2.2. Barrier Functions
5.2.3. Feedstock
- Petrol-based (P);
- Natural biomass (N);
- Monomers from starch/food or feed competition (first-generation) (S);
- Agricultural waste/nonfood competition land use (second-generation) (W);
- CO2 or other feedstocks decoupled from land use (third-generation) (C).
5.2.4. Price
- Category A (0.5–2 €/kg);
- Category B (2.1–5 €/kg);
- Category C (6–10 €/kg);
- Category D (>11 €/kg).
5.2.5. Production
- Category A (>100 kt/a);
- Category B (51–100 kt/a);
- Category C (10–50 kt/a);
- Category D (<10 kt/a).
5.2.6. Food-Contact Material
- Not tested (~);
- Declined (o);
- Approved (+).
5.3. Examples
5.4. Commercial Applications and Supply Chain
6. Environmental Impact
6.1. “During the Production”
6.1.1. Land Use—Soil Erosion
6.1.2. Loss of Biodiversity
6.2. “At the End of life”
6.2.1. Recycling of Bioplastics
6.2.2. Biodegradation of Bioplastics
- Release of micro- and nano-plastics into the environment during biodegradation
6.2.3. Incineration with Energy Recovery
6.2.4. Disposal in Landfill
7. Consumer Research
Influencing Factors
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Malaysia | Thailand | Vietnam | USA | Japan | Germany | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Imports | 11% | 6% | 5% | |||
Exports | 16% | 15% | 13% |
Fruit By-Products | Type of Bioplastic Materials | Target Microorganisms | Physical and Mechanical Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Apricot kernel essential oil | Chitosan films | Reduction in fungal growth on packaged bread slices | Improved water resistance, increased tensile strength | [101] |
Grapefruit seed extract | Coating of alginate and chitosan films | Reduced bacteria count by 2 log CFU | Increased barrier properties | [102] |
Grapefruit seed extract | Carrageenan films | Large inhibitory zone against Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus cereus |
Increased water vapor permeability and surface hydrophilicity | [103] |
Coconut husk extract | Nanocomposite films or gelatin films | - | Improved water sensitivity | [87] |
Mango peel flour and extracts of mango seed kernel | Biodegradable coatings and films | - | Good barrier and antioxidant activity | [104] |
Mango kernel extract | Soy protein isolate and fish gelatin films | - | Thicker and more translucent films, increased tensile strength, decreased the water solubility, and increased antioxidant activity | [105] |
Apple peel polyphenols | Chitosan films | - | Increased thickness, density, solubility, opacity, and swelling ratio, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [106] |
Apple skin extract | Carboxymethylcellulose films | Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica, and Shigella flexneri | Enhanced mechanical, water barrier, solubility, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [107] |
Banana peel extract | Chitosan films | - | Reduced hydrophilicity and excellent antioxidant activity | [108] |
Pomegranate peel extract | Chitosan–pullulan composite edible coatings | - | Resistance to water loss and gas transpiration | [109] |
Pomegranate peel powder | Gelatin films | Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli | Increased antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [110] |
Pomegranate peel extract | Zein films | Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas perfringens, Micrococcus luteus, Enterococci faecalis, Proteus vulgaris, and Salmonella typhii | Increased tensile strength and antioxidant Activity, and decreased film solubility and water vapor transmission rate | [111] |
Blackcurrant pomace powder | Pectin-based films | - | Increased water vapor permeability and antioxidant activity, and decreased tensile strength | [112] |
Vegetable By-Products | Type of Bioplastic Materials | Target Microorganisms | Physical and Mechanical Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Whole potato peel | Active biodegradable films incorporated with bacterial cellulose and curcumin | - | Improved tensile strength, reduced water vapor, permeability, oxygen permeability, and moisture content | [113] |
Tomato extract | PVOH films mixed with chitosan and itaconic acid | Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica Enteritidis, and Salmonella enterica Typhimurium | Improved physical properties | [114] |
Lycopene from tomato extract | Poly-lactic acid films | - | Improved barrier against light and oxygen | [115] |
Red cabbage extracts | Gelatin films | - | Increased water solubility, water vapor permeability | [116] |
Red cabbage extracts | Active fish gelatin films | - | Improved water and mechanical resistance, and antioxidant activity | [117] |
Red cabbage anthocyanins | PVOH and starch, propolis, anthocyanins, and rosemary extract composite films | Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus | Improved mechanical strength | [118] |
Solid sweet potato by-product | Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) composites | - | Increased thermal stability | [119] |
β-carotene from carrot | Films based on cassava starch | - | Increased thickness, and greater stability and solubility | [120] |
Tomato-based pigments | PVOH-based biofilms | - | Reduced transparency and increased mechanical resistance | [121] |
Okra mucilage | Carboxymethyl cellulose with ZnO nanoparticle nanocomposite films | Staphylococcus aureus | Reduced microbial growth, oxidation, and gas production. | [122] |
Class | Degradability | Barrier | Processability | Feedstock | Application | FC | Price | Prod | References | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | H | I | N | O | W | I | C | E | T | B | P | N | W | S | C | T | B | P | C | F | |||||
Proteins | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zein | X | X | X | - | B | D | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | B | ? | [174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181] |
Gluten | X | X | X | - | B-C | C-E | X | X | X | X | ? | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | ? | ? | [182,183,184,185,186,187] |
Soy | X | X | X | - | C | D | X | X | X | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | - | X | ? | ? | X | X | + | B | ? | [188,189,190,191] |
Whey | X | X | X | - | A-B | A-B | X | X | X | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | X | X | X | + | C | ? | [192,193,194] |
Casein | X | X | X | - | A | C | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | B-C | ? | [195] |
Collagen | X | X | X | - | - | C | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | C | ? | [196] |
Keratin | X | X | X | - | - | A-B | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | ? | ? | [197] |
Carbohydrates | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cellulose-based | X | X | X | C | D | X | X | X | ? | ? | - | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | + | A-B | B | [198] | ||
Starch-based | X | X | X | - | C | C-D | X | X | X | ? | ? | - | X | ? | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | + | B | A | [199,200] |
Chitosan | X | X | X | - | B-C | C-D | - | X | - | - | - | - | X | X | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | B-D | ? | [201,202] |
Alginate | X | X | X | - | B | D-E | - | X | - | - | - | - | X | X | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | B | - | [203,204,205] |
Polyesters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
PLA | - | - | X | - | D | D | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | X | X | + | A-B | A | [168,201,206,207] |
PHA | X | X | X | - | C | C | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | X | X | X | ? | X | X | + | D | C | [70,208,209,210,211,212] |
PBS | - | X | X | - | D | B-C | X | X | X | X | ? | X | X | - | X | - | X | X | ? | X | X | + | B-C | B | [213] |
PBAT | ? | X | X | - | D | C | X | X | X | X | ? | X | - | - | - | - | X | X | X | X | X | + | B | A | [214] |
PEF | - | - | - | X | B | B-C | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | X | ? | ? | ? | ~ | B | D | [164,215,216] |
Bio-PET | - | - | - | X | D | C | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | X | X | + | A-B | A | [164,217,218] |
PGA | ? | X | X | - | B | B | X | X | ? | ? | ? | X | X | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | B | ? | [219] |
Ethers | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lignin-based | ? | X | X | - | E | D | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | X | X | - | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | ~ | A-B | ? | [220] |
Polyolefins | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bio-PE | - | - | - | X | E | B | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | X | X | X | A-B | A | [164,221] |
Lipid-based | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Waxes | ? | X | X | - | E | B-C | X | ? | ? | ? | ? | X | X | X | - | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | X | B | ? | [222,223,224] |
Fatty Acid-based | ? | X | X | - | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | X | X | - | - | ? | ? | ? | X | X | + | ? | ? | [225] |
Packaged Products | Number of Studies | Studies |
---|---|---|
Water | 6 | [292,293,294,295,296,297,298] |
Coca Cola/other colas | 3 | [296,299,300] |
Fruit | 2 | [301,302] |
Juice | 1 | [303] |
Beer | 1 | [296] |
Soup | 1 | [304] |
Takeout food | 1 | [305] |
Food in general (unspecified) | 1 | [306] |
Studies | Price premium | Method | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
[305] | N/A | Choice-based conjoint | The study only tested bio-based alternatives, no fossil alternatives |
[292] | 0.07 Euro / bottle (PLA) 0.05 Euro / bottle (bio-PET) | Choice-based conjoint | Percentages were not shown and could not be calculated |
[295] | 25% PLA over PET (mean) 22–35% depending on treatment 13% PLA over PEF 6–17% depending on the treatment | Direct | Treatments: different messages on the environmental effects of different plastics |
[301] | Control group: 23% Other groups: 19–51% (depending on the treatment) | Choice-based conjoint | Treatments: e.g., pictures, normative messages |
[293] study 2 | 21% | Direct | |
[293] study 3 | 18% | Direct | |
[298] Study 2 | 30% | Direct | |
[298] Study 3 | 20% | Direct | |
[298] Study 4 | 8% | Direct |
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Cruz, R.M.S.; Krauter, V.; Krauter, S.; Agriopoulou, S.; Weinrich, R.; Herbes, C.; Scholten, P.B.V.; Uysal-Unalan, I.; Sogut, E.; Kopacic, S.; et al. Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects. Foods 2022, 11, 3087. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193087
Cruz RMS, Krauter V, Krauter S, Agriopoulou S, Weinrich R, Herbes C, Scholten PBV, Uysal-Unalan I, Sogut E, Kopacic S, et al. Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects. Foods. 2022; 11(19):3087. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193087
Chicago/Turabian StyleCruz, Rui M. S., Victoria Krauter, Simon Krauter, Sofia Agriopoulou, Ramona Weinrich, Carsten Herbes, Philip B. V. Scholten, Ilke Uysal-Unalan, Ece Sogut, Samir Kopacic, and et al. 2022. "Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects" Foods 11, no. 19: 3087. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193087