Designing Nutrition for Health—Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Processing Operations Used to Obtain Functional Foods
3. Nutrition by Design and Functional Foods
3.1. Nutrition by Design
3.2. Functional Foods
3.3. The Synergism between Nutrition by Design and Functional Foods
4. Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from Functional Foods in Consumers
4.1. Omega-3
4.2. Antioxidants
4.2.1. Hydro-Soluble Antioxidant Compounds
4.2.2. Liposoluble Antioxidant Compounds
4.3. Carotenoids
4.4. Minerals
4.5. Vitamin D
4.6. Bioactive Peptides
5. Potential Risks and Drawbacks Associated with the Consumption of Functional Foods Enriched with Bioactive Compounds
6. Bioaccessibility, Bioactivity, and Bioavailability as Food Component Functionalities
7. Major By-Products Used to Obtain Poultry-Derived Functional Foods and Their Main Bioactive Compounds and Essential Nutrients
8. Enhancing Poultry Diets with Dietary By-Products and Aspects That Should Be Considered to Obtain Functional Foods
8.1. Nutrient Composition of Diets
8.2. Nutritional Adequacy of Diets
8.3. Bioavailability and Absorption
8.4. Individual Variability in Animal Nutrition
8.5. Evidence-Based Practice
9. Safety and Regulation of Functional Foods
10. Challenges and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Methods/Processing Operations | What Involves | Products | References |
---|---|---|---|
Technological methods/operations | |||
Fortification or enrichment | This method involves adding specific nutrients or bioactive compounds with low nutritional values to a food product, during osmotic dehydration, hydration, and cooking or using pretreatment. However, their bioavailability, stability, or nutrient location in food are scarcely analysed. | cereals, dairy products, flour, condiments | [25] |
Fermentation | Fermentation is a natural safe technique for food preservation that enhances the bioavailability and digestibility of nutrients in foods, which are rich in probiotics and beneficial microorganisms. The most common fermentations are lactic acid homofermentation and heterofermentation, butyric acid, mixed acid, propionic acid, and acetic acid. | yogurt, kefir, and sauerkraut; beans, legumes, flours, and some cereals | [26] |
Sprouting | Sprouting seeds, grains, or legumes increases their nutrient content, including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. This method also increases the digestibility and sensory qualities of sprouts and decreases the levels of anti-nutritional components. | vegetable, fruits, cereals, spices | [27,28] |
Extraction | Extracting bioactive compounds from natural sources, like herbs, fruits, or vegetables, to create supplements or functional ingredients for food products. | supplements | [29,30] |
Biotechnology | This method allows for the modification of crops to enhance their functional properties, designed to have higher nutrient content or resistance to pests. | genetically modified crops | [31] |
Advanced methods/operations | |||
Food processing techniques | Certain food operations, such as freeze-drying or freeze concentration, can preserve the bioactive compounds in foods while removing water, reduction/elimination, or other unwanted compounds, extending shelf-life, and concentrating nutrients. | juices, fruits, jams | [32,33] |
Nanotechnology | Nanotechnology is employed to encapsulate and deliver bioactive compounds like vitamins, minerals, or antioxidants in nano-sized particles. This enhances their stability, solubility, and bioavailability, allowing for controlled release in the body. | bakery, pasta, cereal based products | [34,35] |
Microencapsulation | This technique involves coating bioactive compounds with a protective layer, typically a food-grade polymer, to prevent degradation during storage and to increase their stability. Microencapsulated compounds can be added to various food products to make them functional. | phytosterols, fatty acids, polyphenols, other bioactives. | [36,37] |
Extrusion | Extrusion is a high-temperature, high-pressure process used to modify the structure of foods. It can increase the availability of bioactive compounds, such as by improving the digestibility of proteins or breaking down complex carbohydrates. | cereal based products, flours, | [38] |
Spray drying | Spray drying is used to convert liquid bioactive ingredients into powder form while maintaining their functional properties. This method is commonly employed in the production of powdered supplements and fortified foods. | oils, flours, bioactive compounds. | [39] |
High-Pressure processing | Is a non-thermal food processing technique that preserves the nutritional and sensory qualities of foods; reduction/elimination of mycotoxins from foods; improvement of emulsifying properties, gelling capacity and formation, and apparent digestibility. It can be used to maintain the bioactive compounds in fresh foods. | juices, tomatoes, carrots and broccoli, fish, meat, egg, cheese | [40,41] |
Pulsed electric field processing | This method uses short bursts of electricity to increase the permeability of cell membranes in foods. This method can enhance the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials. | eggs, corn, beetroots, bioactive compounds. | [42,43] |
Cold plasma technology | Cold plasma treatment can improve the microbial safety and shelf-life of foods while preserving their nutritional content. It is used in the development of functional foods like fruit juices. | juices, nuts, cereals, fruits, dairy products | [44,45] |
Membrane filtration | This method uses selective membranes to separate and concentrate bioactive compounds from food sources, such as proteins, peptides, and polyphenols, for use in functional food products. | fruit and vegetable juices | [46] |
Ultrasonication | Ultrasonic waves are employed to break down cell walls and release bioactive compounds from plant materials. This method can be used in the extraction of phytochemicals from fruits and vegetables. | grape pomace, cereals | [47] |
Ohmic heating | Ohmic heating uses electrical resistance to heat food products uniformly. It is also used to improve the extraction and retention of bioactive compounds in various foods. | seafood and surimi | [48] |
Enzymatic hydrolysis | Is a processing operation which involves the use of specific enzymes to break down complex compounds, such as proteins, into smaller, bioactive peptides. This process enhances the bioavailability of nutrients, making them more readily absorbed by the body. | protein hydrolysates, fish peptides, fruit enzyme extracts | [49,50] |
Digital methods/operations | |||
3D printing | These innovative methods involve customized food design, digitalized and personalized nutrition, the efficient use of raw material, and expansion of the food material source. This technology was developed to design and manufacture food with defined properties and characteristics, which can be employed in the development of functional foods to fulfil consumer demands for more healthy food. | cereals, pasta, meat, fish products, fruits. | [21,22] |
Nutritional methods | |||
Animal nutrition studies | This method focuses on the biology and chemistry of different nutrients, minerals, bioactive compounds, and feed additives related to animal health and the production of animal products with enhanced qualities. | poultry, dairy, pork products | [14,20,51] |
Definition | Reference |
---|---|
Foods expected to provide certain health benefits and authorized to carry a label asserting that individuals using them for specific health purposes can anticipate health improvements through their consumption. | [86] |
Food containing potentially beneficial products, including any modified food or food ingredient that may offer a health benefit beyond traditional nutrients it contains. | [88] |
Food products and beverages derived from natural substances consumed as part of the daily diet and possessing exceptional physiological benefits when ingested. | [89] |
Foods that can offer health benefits beyond basic nutrition. | [90] |
Foods or food products marketed with a health benefit message. | [91] |
Foods derived from natural substances that can be consumed as part of the daily diet and serve to regulate or affect a specific bodily process when ingested. | [92] |
Foods similar in appearance to conventional ones, consumed as part of the regular diet, demonstrating physiological benefits and/or reducing the risk of chronic diseases beyond basic nutritional functions.A functional food is either a conventional food or a food that appears similar to a conventional food and is part of a regular diet, providing health benefits and/or reducing the risk of specific chronic diseases beyond its basic nutritional functions. | [93] |
Modified foods or food ingredients offering health benefits beyond their traditional nutrients. | [94] |
Foods with added ingredients claiming to provide a health benefit to consumers, beyond the benefits offered by regular foods themselves. | [95] |
A food product can be considered functional only if, in addition to its basic nutritional impact, it has beneficial effects on one or more functions of the human body, either by improving overall physical conditions and functions or by reducing the risk of disease progression. The quantity consumed and the form of the functional food should be as expected for normal dietary purposes. Therefore, it should not be in the form of a pill or capsule, but rather like regular food. | [96] |
Functional foods are formulated products with natural chemicals (or combinations of chemicals) found in many fruits, vegetables, grains, herbs, and spices to provide a health benefit, reduce the risk of certain diseases, or affect a specific organism or process. They go beyond correcting diseases like pellagra and scurvy caused by nutritional deficiencies. Functional foods are similar to novel macro-ingredients, as their formulation is intended to provide a health benefit to consumers. However, functional foods are designed to reduce the risk of specific diseases, such as lung cancer, by eliminating certain ingredients, adding or combining ingredients not typically found in a food product, or by concentrating substances in higher amounts than usual. | [97] |
Foods that, due to their physiologically active components, offer benefits beyond basic nutrition and can prevent diseases or promote health. | [98] |
Foods to which ingredients with additional health value have been added, and this is announced to consumers. | [99] |
A food is functional if a health claim can be made. | [100] |
Foods or food components that can have health benefits and reduce the risk of specific diseases or other health problems. | [101] |
A food that looks like a conventional food but has physiological benefits and/or reduces the risk of chronic diseases beyond basic nutritional functions. | [102] |
A food that is a food and not a medicine, and that is part of a normal diet, providing benefits beyond basic nutrition. | [103] |
(1) A natural food to which a component has been added and from which another component has been removed; the nature of one or more components has been modified, as has the bioavailability of one or more components.(2) Foods derived from natural substances that can and should be consumed as part of the daily diet and serve to regulate or affect a specific bodily process when ingested. | [86] |
Any food for which a health claim can be made is a functional food. | [104] |
Foods that can be part of our daily diet but have properties that offer an additional health benefit. | [105] |
Functional foods primarily aid in nutrient provision but additionally offer a special health advantage. | [106] |
Foods similar in appearance to conventional foods intended to be consumed as part of a normal diet but have been modified to have physiological roles beyond providing basic nutritional requirements. | [107] |
Foods similar in appearance to conventional foods consumed daily in the diet but which, in addition to their basic nutritional value, contain additives or specific properties obtained through processing or other methods for which a physiological/health benefit beyond basic nutrition is claimed. | [108] |
A whole food (as opposed to pills, powders, or supplements) that is fortified, enriched, or enhanced with a component having a health benefit beyond basic nutrition. | [100] |
Foods that include potentially healthful products, including any modified food or food ingredient that may offer a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains. | [109] |
Foods that can be regularly consumed as part of a normal diet, specially designed to provide a physiological or medical benefit by regulating bodily functions to protect against or delay the onset of diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancer, hypertension, diabetes, and osteoporosis. | [110] |
Foods that, in addition to providing known nutrients, can offer other health benefits. | [111] |
Any food or food ingredient that may offer a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains. | [112] |
A food with added technologically developed ingredients with a specific health benefit. | [113] |
(1) A functional food is or appears similar to a conventional food. It is part of a standard diet and is consumed regularly in normal quantities. It has proven health benefits, reduces the risk of specific chronic diseases or beneficially affects target functions, beyond its basic nutritional functions.(2) A food can be considered functional if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a manner relevant either to improve health and well-being and/or reduce the risk of illness. | [114] |
Food that has a demonstrated benefit for one or more functions of the human body, improving health or well-being, or reducing the risk of illness. | [115] |
Food products enriched with special constituents that have advantageous physiological effects. | [116] |
Whole foods and fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods with the potential to benefit health when consumed as part of a varied diet, regularly, at effective levels. | [117] |
Foods that, with their specific health effects, could indicate a new way of thinking about the relationship between food and health in everyday life. | [118] |
By-Product | Main Bioactive Compounds and Effects | References |
---|---|---|
Oilseed by-products | ||
Olive pomace | The residual material left after olive oil extraction is rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, phytosterols, squalene, triterpenic acids, and unsaturated fatty acids, which collectively offer potential health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and immune-supportive effects. | [222] |
Sunflower meal | Residue from sunflower oil extraction, a good source of protein, contains a diverse array of main bioactive compounds, including phenolic compounds, phytosterols, tocopherols, and lignans, which contribute to its nutritional and health-promoting properties. | [223] |
Canola meal | Canola meal is rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds, including protein, fibre, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, and glucosinolates, making it a valuable and health-promoting feed ingredient for animals. | [224] |
Peanut shells | Peanut shells are rich in a variety of bioactive compounds and essential nutrients, including polyphenols, flavonoids, dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, making them a valuable source of health-promoting components. | [225] |
Peanut meal | Leftover after oil extraction from peanuts, peanut meal contains essential nutrients such as protein, fibre, and healthy fats, and bioactive compounds like polyphenols and antioxidants, which not only make it a valuable ingredient for poultry nutrition but also contribute to improved product quality, including enhanced meat flavour and nutritional value. | [226] |
Almond shells | Almond shells are rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds, including fibre, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and polyphenols, making them a valuable and nutrient-dense agricultural by-product with potential applications in various industries including animal feeding, providing fibre. | [227] |
Cottonseed meal | Cottonseed meal is rich in bioactive compounds such as gossypol and essential nutrients like protein, fibre, and minerals, making it highly suitable for poultry nutrition, resulting in improved product quality, enhanced growth, and optimal feed efficiency. | [228] |
Rapeseed meal | Rapeseed meal is rich in essential nutrients such as protein, amino acids, and minerals, while also containing bioactive compounds like essential fatty acids, glucosinolates and phytosterols, making it highly suitable for poultry nutrition, promoting optimal growth, and enhancing the overall quality of poultry products. | [229] |
Flaxseed meal | Flaxseed meal is a by-product rich in essential nutrients like protein, fibre, and healthy fats, as well as bioactive compounds such as lignans and alpha-linolenic acid, which enhance poultry nutrition and promote superior product quality, including enriched eggs with omega-3 fatty acids and improved meat lipid profiles. | [14,18] |
Sesame meal | Sesame meal is a by-product from sesame oil extraction, and it is rich in essential nutrients such as protein, amino acids, vitamins E, minerals (calcium, phosphorus), along with bioactive compounds like lignans, phytosterols, and antioxidants, which contribute to its suitability for poultry nutrition, promoting enhanced product quality and overall health. | [223] |
Pumpkin meal | Is a rich source of bioactive polyphenols, antioxidants, and essential fatty acids, which enhances egg quality and shelf-life. | [230] |
Grains by-products | ||
Rice bran | Outer layer of rice, rich in fat, and used in swine and poultry feed. Rice bran is abundant in essential bioactive compounds and nutrients, such as antioxidants, tocopherols, tocotrienols, gamma-oryzanol, and various vitamins and minerals, making it a valuable and nutritionally rich ingredient with potential health benefits. | [231] |
Wheat bran | Wheat bran is a valuable ingredient for poultry nutrition due to its rich content of bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and essential nutrients, including dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals, and proteins. | [231] |
Brewer’s grains Distiller’s grains | Brewer’s grains and distiller’s grains are rich in essential nutrients, such as protein, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, while also containing bioactive compounds like antioxidants and beneficial enzymes, making them highly suitable for poultry nutrition. | [232] |
Chickpea meal | Chickpea meal is rich in protein, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, and contains polyphenols and antioxidants, contributing to improved poultry nutrition and enhancing product quality with enhanced growth performance and health benefits. | [233] |
Pea meal | Pea meal is rich in protein, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, and contains phenolic compounds and flavonoids, which contribute to its suitability for poultry nutrition and positively influence product quality, enhancing growth performance and promoting overall health. | [234] |
Legumes by-products | ||
Potato peels | The outer skin of potatoes, containing carbohydrates and fibre, is rich in a diverse array of bioactive compounds and essential nutrients, including antioxidants, dietary fibre, vitamins (vitamin C and vitamin B6), minerals (potassium and magnesium), and resistant starch, making it a valuable source of nutritional benefits. | [235] |
Sugar beet pulp | By-product from sugar production, containing fibre and carbohydrates. Sugar beet pulp contains a range of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids, betalains, and dietary fibres, which offer various health benefits to poultry, such as antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory effects, and improved gut health. | [236] |
Tomato pomace | The residual material after tomato juice extraction, which is rich in bioactive compounds, such as lycopene, phenolic compounds, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibres, making it an excellent choice for poultry nutrition, enhancing product quality with improved antioxidant content and nutritional value. | [237,238] |
Carrots waste | Carrot waste contains high amounts of residual bioactive, with currently little commercial value, but it provides carotenoids with important health implications. | [239,240] |
Fruits by-products | ||
Apple pomace | Leftover after apple juice extraction, and is a source of fibre, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Contains various polyphenols, including flavonoids such as quercetin, catechins, and epicatechins, as well as phenolic acids like chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid. These polyphenols contribute to the antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. | [241] |
Citrus pulp and peel | Citrus peel is rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds, such as dietary fibre, antioxidants, polyphenols, and vitamins, making it highly suitable for poultry nutrition, promoting overall health, performance, and product quality. | [242,243] |
Banana peels | The outer skin of bananas, which is rich in essential nutrients such as fibre, potassium, and vitamins, as well as bioactive compounds like polyphenols and antioxidants, making it a valuable and suitable component for poultry nutrition. | [244] |
Pineapple pulp | The residue left after pineapple juice extraction, which contains bioactive compounds and essential nutrients such as bromelain enzymes, vitamin C, and essential minerals, rendering it highly suitable for poultry nutrition, promoting overall health and performance. | [245] |
Watermelon rind | The outer green skin of watermelon is rich in essential nutrients such as fibre, vitamins, and minerals, along with bioactive compounds like citrulline and lycopene, making it highly suitable for poultry nutrition. | [246] |
Mango peel | The outer skin of mangoes contains phenolics, carotenoids, and dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals, making it a valuable and advantageous ingredient for poultry nutrition, contributing to improved immune function, antioxidant capacity, and overall performance in poultry. | [247] |
Grape pomace | Contains bioactive compounds and essential nutrients, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, vitamins, and minerals, making it an ideal candidate for poultry nutrition, resulting in improved product quality with enhanced antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. | [248,249] |
Rosehip meal | Rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, along with essential nutrients like vitamin C, vitamin E, and dietary fibre, making it a valuable ingredient for poultry nutrition, leading to improved product quality, and enhanced antioxidant content, which enhances the product’s shelf-life. | [14,250] |
Blueberry residue | Rich in anthocyanins, flavonoids, polyphenols, vitamins, and minerals, making it an excellent candidate for poultry nutrition, leading to improved product quality with enhanced antioxidant properties. | [251] |
Cranberry waste | Contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, making it a highly suitable addition to poultry nutrition, leading to improved product quality and enhanced health benefits for the birds. | [9,252] |
Type of Food | Regulation | References |
---|---|---|
food supplement | Directive 2002/46/EC states that food supplements are concentrated sources of nutrients or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect, marketed in dose form (e.g., capsules, tablets, or sachets), and intended to supplement the normal diet. They correct nutritional deficiencies, maintain nutrient intake, or support physiological functions. | [279] |
vitamins and minerals | Directive 2002/46/EC primarily focuses on vitamins and minerals, providing lists of harmonized vitamins, minerals, and their sources for food supplement manufacturing, along with labelling requirements. However, it does not fully cover other substances that may be present in food supplements. Additional compounds may be regulated by national rules or authorized under other EU legislations, such as regulations for the fortification of food, foods for specific groups, and novel foods. | [279] |
enriched or fortified foods | Regulation (EC) No. 1925/2006 addresses enriched or fortified foods with specific nutrients. Unlike food supplements, these substances are added directly to food items to enhance their nutritional qualities. This regulation includes substances beyond vitamins and minerals, such as essential fatty acids, fibre, and various plants and herbal extracts. | [280] |
foods for specific groups | Regulation (EU) 609/2013 refers to Foods for Specific Groups (FSG) and establishes requirements for various food categories, including infant formula, baby food, food for special medical purposes, and total diet replacement for weight control. It also sets rules for adding substances (including bioactive compounds) to these foods. The list of permissible substances includes minerals, vitamins, amino acids, carnitine, taurine, nucleotides, choline, and inositol. | [281] |
novel foods | Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2283 on “novel foods” applies to foods not significantly consumed in the EU before 15 May 1997. This regulation covers new foods, food from new sources, new substances used in food, and new food production technologies. | [282] |
food additives and nutrition and health claims | Regulations like (EC) 1333/2008 [28] for food additives and Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006 for nutrition and health claims may affect foods containing additives or bioactive compounds with technological functions or those making specific nutritional or health claims, respectively. These regulations provide additional requirements and guidelines beyond those specifically related to food supplements and bioactive compounds. | [283,284] |
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Vlaicu, P.A.; Untea, A.E.; Varzaru, I.; Saracila, M.; Oancea, A.G. Designing Nutrition for Health—Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations. Foods 2023, 12, 4001. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12214001
Vlaicu PA, Untea AE, Varzaru I, Saracila M, Oancea AG. Designing Nutrition for Health—Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations. Foods. 2023; 12(21):4001. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12214001
Chicago/Turabian StyleVlaicu, Petru Alexandru, Arabela Elena Untea, Iulia Varzaru, Mihaela Saracila, and Alexandra Gabriela Oancea. 2023. "Designing Nutrition for Health—Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations" Foods 12, no. 21: 4001. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12214001