The Influence of Cabernet Sauvignon Ripeness, Healthy State and Maceration Time on Wine and Fermented Pomace Phenolic Profile
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material
2.2. Chemicals and Reagents
2.3. Winemaking
2.3.1. Different Ripening Stages
2.3.2. Healthy Grapes vs. Grapes Affected by Botrytis cinerea
2.3.3. Different Vinifications and the Dynamics of Phenolic Compound Extraction
2.4. Sample Preparation
2.5. LC-MS/MS Analysis
2.6. Determination of Titratable Acidity
2.7. Determination of Total Soluble Solids-Sugar Content
2.8. Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.9. Ferric Reducing Activity of Plasma (FRAP)
2.10. Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC)
2.11. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Phenolic Profile and Antioxidant Properties of Wine and FP Obtained from Grapes of Different Ripeness
3.2. Influence of Botrytis cinerea on the Phenolic Profile of Wine
3.3. Dynamic of Phenolic Compounds Extraction during Inoculated and Spontaneous Fermentations
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Phenolic Compound | Molecular Formula | Molecular Mass (g/mol) | ESI Mode | MRM Transition | Cone Voltage (V) | Collision Energy (V) | tR (min) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gallic acid | C7H6O5 | 170 | - | 169→125 | 166 | 10 | 3.90 |
Catechin | C15H14O6 | 290 | - | 289→245 | 166 | 10 | 9.90 |
Epicatechin | C15H14O6 | 290 | - | 289→245 | 166 | 10 | 11.52 |
Syringic acid | C9H10O5 | 198 | - | 197→182 | 166 | 7 | 11.60 |
p-Coumaric acid | C9H8O3 | 164 | - | 163→119 | 166 | 9 | 12.70 |
Quercetin | C15H10O7 | 302 | - | 301→151 | 166 | 15 | 15.60 |
Content (mg/L) | ANOVA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic Compound | Véraison | Fully Ripe | Overripe | F | p-Value |
Gallic acid | 5.18 ± 0.20 a | 4.22 ± 0.40 b | 1.59 ± 0.15 | 139.73 | 0.000 * |
Catechin | 1.55 ± 0.10 a | 40.13 ± 3.25 b | 19.23 ± 1.40 | 267.841 | 0.000 * |
Epicatechin | 0.73 ± 0.05 a | 22.29 ± 1.50 b | 12.35 ± 0.50 | 418.778 | 0.000 * |
Syringic acid | 5.57 ± 0.40 a | 7.55 ± 0.50 | 8.26 ± 0.60 | 22.715 | 0.002 * |
p-Coumaric acid | 4.19 ± 0.35 b | 3.88 ± 0.20 b | 2.33 ± 0.20 | 44.135 | 0.000 * |
Quercetin | 0.09 ± 0.01 a | 0.78 ± 0.02 b | 0.00 | 3277.8 | 0.000 * |
Content (mg/kg) | ANOVA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic Compound | Véraison | Fully Ripe | Overripe | F | p-Value |
Gallic acid | 0.86 ± 0.04 b | 0.82 ± 0.04 b | 0.67 ± 0.02 | 25.083 | 0.001 * |
Catechin | 4.92 ± 0.15 a | 6.73 ± 0.11 b | 3.30 ± 0.09 | 620.564 | 0.000 * |
Epicatechin | 2.70 ± 0.05 a | 3.37 ± 0.10 b | 1.76 ± 0.04 | 417.511 | 0.000 * |
Syringic acid | 5.68 ± 0.10 a | 8.53 ± 0.15 b | 10.29 ± 0.25 | 512.719 | 0.000 * |
p-Coumaric acid | 0.04 ± 0.004 c | 0.05 ± 0.002 b | 0.04 ± 0.002 | 12.500 | 0.007 * |
Quercetin | 7.44 ± 0.10 a | 10.96 ± 0.14 b | 5.61 ± 0.15 | 440.549 | 0.000 * |
Ripening Stage | Wine | FP | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FRAP (mmol Fe2+/L) | TEAC (mmol TE/L) | TPC (mg/L) | FRAP (mmol Fe2+/KG) | TEAC (mmol TE/KG) | TPC (mg/KG) | |
Véraison | 19.50 ± 4.25 a | 8.74 ± 2.62 | 1000.0 ± 190.0 b | 16.22 ± 4.82 | 14.93 ± 3.62 | 1320.9 ± 290.0 c |
Fully ripe | 20.10 ± 4.02 | 16.0 ± 3.20 | 1525.0 ± 210.0 | 26.31 ± 5.21 | 15.90 ± 3.18 | 2260.4 ± 325.0 |
Overripe | 28.50 ± 2.85 | 15.34 ± 1.51 | 1550.0 ± 235.0 | 16.61 ± 1.58 | 12.43 ± 1.11 | 1629.5 ± 275.0 |
Content (mg/L) | ANOVA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic Compound | Healthy Grape | Grape Affected by Botrytis cinerea | F | p-Value |
Gallic acid | 2.80 ± 0.10 a | 2.00 ± 0.05 | 153.6 | 0.000 * |
Catechin | 23.71 ± 0.50 a | 16.95 ± 0.33 | 381.98 | 0.000 * |
Epicatechin | 10.46 ± 0.20 a | 9.32 ± 0.20 | 48.735 | 0.002 * |
Syringic acid | 3.73 ± 0.15 a | 8.43 ± 0.40 | 363.123 | 0.000 * |
p-Coumaric acid | 2.32 ± 0.10 | 2.19 ± 0.08 | 3.091 | 0.154 |
Quercetin | 24.75 ± 0.50 a | 0.47 ± 0.02 | 7062.920 | 0.000 * |
Wine (mg/L) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of Vinification | Maceration Time | Gallic Acid | Syringic Acid | p-Coumaric Acid | Catechin | Epicatechin | Quercetin |
SF | 0 (control) | 0.09 ± 0.02 | 0.96 ± 0.20 | 0.73 ± 0.21 | 0.32 ± 0.09 | 0.03 ± 0.004 | 0.01 ± 0.001 |
3 | 0.16 ± 0.04 | 7.23 ± 1.98 a | 1.28 ± 0.38 | 0.73 ± 0.21 | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.38 ± 0.07 | |
5 | 1.02 ± 0.19 | 8.11 ± 1.55 a | 5.31 ± 1.59 a,b | 3.20 ± 0.96 | 0.59 ± 0.11 | 0.32 ± 0.06 | |
7 | 2.04 ± 0.31 a,b | 7.21 ± 1.70 a | 6.30 ± 1.89 a,b | 8.63 ± 2.00 | 1.68 ± 0.50 | 2.35 ± 0.47 a,b,c | |
14 | 1.82 ± 0.24 a,b | 5.43 ± 1.62 a | 4.03 ± 1.20 | 25.39 ± 5.61 a,b,c,d | 11.53 ± 2.90 a,b,c,d | 0.98 ± 0.20 a,b,c,d | |
21 | 3.44 ± 0.80 a,b,c,d,e | 6.58 ± 1.97 a | 5.07 ± 1.52 a,b | 29.72 ± 6.00 a,b,c,d | 16.72 ± 4.01 a,b,c,d | 0.46 ± 0.09 d | |
BDX | 0 (control) | 0.57 ± 0.11 | 2.70 ± 0.35 | 0.97 ± 0.20 | 0.32 ± 0.07 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.00 |
3 | 0.81 ± 0.16 | 8.78 ± 1.99 a | 2.35 ± 0.40 | 0.03 ± 0.001 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
5 | 1.32 ± 0.30 | 6.28 ± 1.70 | 5.56 ± 1.60 a,b | 1.29 ± 0.30 | 0.26 ± 0.02 | 0.21 ± 0.04 | |
7 | 2.42 ± 0.70 a,b | 7.50 ± 1.70 a | 0.20 ± 0.04 c | 5.58 ± 1.40 | 1.50 ± 0.20 | 0.53 ± 0.10 a,b,c | |
14 | 2.42 ± 0.72 a,b | 7.74 ± 1.55 a | 5.54 ± 1.55 a,b,d | 19.35 ± 4.02 a,b,c,d | 7.60 ± 1.54 a,b,c,d | 0.57 ± 0.12 a,b,c | |
21 | 4.22 ± 0.90 a,b,c,d,e | 7.55 ± 2.01 a | 3.88 ± 0.80 a,d | 40.13 ± 5.50 a,b,c,d,e | 22.29 ± 4.00 a,b,c,d,e | 0.78 ± 0.20 a,b,c | |
FX10 | 0 (control) | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 2.16 ± 0.40 | 1.05 ± 0.20 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.0001 | 0.02 ± 0.003 |
3 | 1.02 ± 0.18 a | 8.03 ± 1.80 a | 4.74 ± 0.75 a | 5.76 ± 1.45 | 0.79 ± 0.15 | 0.28 ± 0.04 | |
5 | 1.49 ± 0.30 a | 7.36 ± 1.55 a | 10.90 ± 1.02 a,b | 5.38 ± 1.40 | 1.29 ± 0.10 | 0.72 ± 0.21 a,b | |
7 | 1.77 ± 0.24 a,b | 6.52 ± 1.70 a | 8.01 ± 1.80 a | 4.22 ± 0.80 | 0.89 ± 0.16 | 1.19 ± 0.20 a,b,c | |
14 | 2.60 ± 0.25 a,b,c,d | 7.48 ± 1.50 a | 7.82 ± 1.50 a | 17.10 ± 3.20 a,b,c,d | 7.43 ± 1.40 a,b,c,d | 0.99 ± 0.11 a,b | |
21 | 2.68 ± 0.25 a,b,c,d | 6.77 ± 1.40 a | 6.47 ± 1.60 a,c | 29.14 ± 6.20 a,b,c,d,e | 13.67 ± 3.10 a,b,c,d,e | 0.54 ± 0.10 a,d,e | |
Qa23 | 0 (control) | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.34 ± 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
3 | 0.21 ± 0.03 | 7.26 ± 1.80 a | 0.87 ± 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.002 | |
5 | 1.65 ± 0.15 a,b | 8.15 ± 1.90 a | 7.61 ± 1.40 a,b | 1.11 ± 0.25 | 0.31 ± 0.05 | 0.34 ± 0.04 a,b | |
7 | 1.63 ± 0.20 a,b | 6.40 ± 1.20 a | 6.14 ± 1.40 a,b | 6.33 ± 1.05 a,b,c | 1.72 ± 0.25 a,b | 1.24 ± 0.20 a,b,c | |
14 | 3.70 ± 0.70 a,b,c,d | 8.80 ± 1.90 a | 0.00 c,d | 1.03 ± 0.30 d | 0.34 ± 0.04 | 0.02 ± 0.001 c,d | |
21 | 3.16 ± 0.60 a,b,c,d | 6.47 ± 1.40 a | 5.98 ± 1.45 a,b,e | 23.63 ± 3.20 a,b,c,d,e | 13.64 ± 1.25 a,b,c,d,e | 0.85 ± 0.15 a,b,c,d,e |
Fermented Pomace (mg/KG) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of Vinification | Maceration Time | Gallic Acid | Syringic Acid | p-Coumaric Acid | Catechin | Epicatechin | Quercetin |
SF | 0 (control) * | 0.53 ± 0.05 | 2.11 ± 0.32 | 0.00 | 2.98 ± 0.40 | 2.13 ± 0.30 | 0.77 ± 0.20 |
3 | 0.49 ± 0.04 | 3.14 ± 0.40 | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 1.41 ± 0.14 | 0.84 ± 0.15 | 1.70 ± 0.25 | |
5 | 0.69 ± 0.12 | 3.90 ± 0.30 | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 8.61 ± 1.90 a,b | 4.48 ± 0.80 a,b | 6.53 ± 1.80 a,b | |
7 | 0.67 ± 0.10 | 4.47 ± 0.90 | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 4.62 ± 0.90 b,c | 1.84 ± 0.25 c | 9.16 ± 2.05 a,b | |
14 | 0.84 ± 0.15 a,b | 7.40 ± 1.40 a,b,c,d | 0.05 ± 0.011 a | 5.06 ± 1.00 b,c | 2.26 ± 0.60 b,c | 9.99 ± 2.00 a,b | |
21 | 0.98 ± 0.15 a,b,d | 9.12 ± 1.90 a,b,c,d | 0.06 ± 0.02 a | 4.51 ± 0.50 b,c | 2.20 ± 0.50 b,c | 10.40 ± 1.95 a,b | |
BDX | 3 | 0.55 ± 0.05 | 3.28 ± 0.40 | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 5.06 ± 1.50 | 2.78 ± 0.40 | 2.62 ± 0.40 |
5 | 0.62 ± 0.18 | 4.77 ± 0.80 | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 6.83 ± 1.70 | 2.92 ± 0.80 | 7.41 ± 1.70 a,b | |
7 | 0.73 ± 0.14 | 6.03 ± 1.70 a | 0.04 ± 0.005 a | 4.43 ± 0.80 | 1.70 ± 0.30 | 7.07 ± 1.50 a,b | |
14 | 0.73 ± 0.15 | 6.63 ± 1.50 a | 0.04 ± 0.01 a | 4.27 ± 0.90 | 1.92 ± 0.30 | 10.46 ± 1.99 a,b | |
21 | 0.82 ± 0.20 | 8.53 ± 2.10 a,b,c | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 6.73 ± 1.00 | 3.37 ± 0.40 d,e | 10.96 ± 1.40 a,b,d | |
FX | 3 | 0.58 ± 0.05 | 3.24 ± 0.25 | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 2.37 ± 0.69 | 1.01 ± 0.25 | 3.00 ± 0.75 |
5 | 0.57 ± 0.11 | 4.62 ± 0.40 a | 0.04 ± 0.002 a | 7.83 ± 1.23 a,b | 3.42 ± 0.90 a,b | 3.54 ± 0.57 | |
7 | 0.59 ± 0.12 | 5.25 ± 0.60 a,b | 0.04 ± 0.001 a | 4.45 ± 0.90 c | 1.95 ± 0.42 c | 9.64 ± 1.63 a,b,c | |
14 | 0.68 ± 0.09 | 6.16 ± 0.50 a,b | 0.05 ± 0.01 a | 2.37 ± 0.80 c | 1.06 ± 0.20 c | 10.23 ± 2.04 a,b,c | |
21 | 0.72 ± 0.22 | 9.26 ± 1.32 a,b,c,d,e | 0.06 ± 0.02 a | 3.61 ± 1.34 c | 1.94 ± 0.20 c | 12.17 ± 2.13 a,b,c | |
Qa | 3 | 0.73 ± 0.15 | 4.83 ± 0.60 | 0.08 ± 0.02 a | 10.59 ± 2.14 a | 5.95 ± 0.87 a | 3.83 ± 0.30 a |
5 | 1.00 ± 0.12 a | 6.83 ± 0.55 a | 0.09 ± 0.02 a | 28.30 ± 3.58 a,b | 15.08 ± 2.13 a,b | 10.31 ± 1.09 a,b | |
7 | 0.88 ± 0.16 | 6.56 ± 0.83 a | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 17.42 ± 2.19 a,b,c | 7.79 ± 1.54 a,c | 11.30 ± 1.11 a,b | |
14 | 0.75 ± 0.14 | 10.45 ± 2.01 a,b | 0.05 ± 0.002 a,c | 3.70 ± 0.78 b,c,d | 2.05 ± 0.36 b,c,d | 10.59 ± 0.90 a,b | |
21 | 0.66 ± 0.16 | 10.24 ± 2.63 a,b | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 4.21 ± 0.69 b,c,d | 2.70 ± 0.30 b,c,d | 10.99 ± 1.45 a,b |
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Lisov, N.; Čakar, U.; Milenković, D.; Čebela, M.; Vuković, G.; Despotović, S.; Petrović, A. The Influence of Cabernet Sauvignon Ripeness, Healthy State and Maceration Time on Wine and Fermented Pomace Phenolic Profile. Fermentation 2023, 9, 695. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070695
Lisov N, Čakar U, Milenković D, Čebela M, Vuković G, Despotović S, Petrović A. The Influence of Cabernet Sauvignon Ripeness, Healthy State and Maceration Time on Wine and Fermented Pomace Phenolic Profile. Fermentation. 2023; 9(7):695. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070695
Chicago/Turabian StyleLisov, Nikolina, Uroš Čakar, Danijela Milenković, Maria Čebela, Gorica Vuković, Saša Despotović, and Aleksandar Petrović. 2023. "The Influence of Cabernet Sauvignon Ripeness, Healthy State and Maceration Time on Wine and Fermented Pomace Phenolic Profile" Fermentation 9, no. 7: 695. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070695