Next Article in Journal / Special Issue
Development of a High-Accuracy Statistical Model to Identify the Key Parameter for Methane Adsorption in Metal-Organic Frameworks
Previous Article in Journal / Special Issue
Analytical Chemistry: Tasks, Resolutions and Future Standpoints of the Quantitative Analyses of Environmental Complex Sample Matrices
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Analytica
Volume 3
Issue 3
10.3390/analytica3030023
analytica-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Measurement of Radon Concentration in Water within Ojo Axis of Lagos State, Nigeria

by
Mostafa Mostafa
1,*,
M. A. Olaoye
2,
A. K. Ademola
3,
O. A. Jegede
4,
A. A. Saka
2 and
Hyam Khalaf
1,*
1
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia 61519, Egypt
2
Department of Physics, Lagos State University, Lagos 102101, Nigeria
3
Physical Sciences Department, Bells University of Technology, Ota 112212, Nigeria
4
Department of Physics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta 110001, Nigeria
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Analytica 2022, 3(3), 325-334; https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica3030023
Submission received: 22 July 2022 / Revised: 29 August 2022 / Accepted: 30 August 2022 / Published: 2 September 2022
(This article belongs to the Collection Analytical and Applied Chemistry: the challenges and opportunities for growth in the 21st century)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: The problem of radon (Radon-222) in water is one of the daily health hazards faced by those in Ojo Axis, Nigeria. Therefore, continuous monitoring of radon contamination in different types of water is essential. In the present work, sixteen groundwater and surface-water samples (wells, boreholes, and sachets) were collected from six different locations within the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria. The water samples collected were stored in 75 cl bottles that were already sterilized with distilled water to avoid contamination. Water samples were then taken to the laboratory for the analysis of radon levels using a RAD7, an active electronic device produced by the Durridge Company in the USA. The radon level in the water is higher than the safe limits of 11.1 Bq/L, as per EPA regulations, except for two sample points from the studied areas. The total annual effective doses from ingestion and inhalation for drinking and groundwater were higher than the safe limit of 0.1 mSv y−1 that is recommended by the World Health Organization and the European Union Commission. Conclusions: The obtained results underline the importance of the development and/or updating of databases regarding radon levels in drinking and groundwater in the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Water is a natural resource without which people, crops, and living creatures cannot survive (either directly or indirectly) [1,2,3]. It is one of the planet’s fundamental and crucial natural resources on which most life depends. Furthermore, it plays a major role in the environment, the ecosystem, and human health. However, once contaminated, it can cause major health issues to humans and degradation of the natural environment, as well as the ecosystem in general. The solubility of several chemicals, minerals, and radioactive elements cause the groundwater to be more radioactive than the surface water. The flow of water through rock and soil formations also contributes to groundwater being more radioactive than surface water [4,5,6,7,8,9].
Various studies on naturally occurring radionuclides, including radon, radium, uranium, thorium, and actinium isotopes, are predominantly reported in groundwater, drinking water, and freshwater [9,10]. However, their quantities are highly variable because the levels depend on the type of aquifer and the local lithology [11,12]. Furthermore, the presence of uranium radionuclides series in water, such as 226Ra and 222Rn, can be harmful to human health. As a result, exposure to these radionuclides through consumption poses a concerning health risk to humans [13,14,15,16,17].
Radon, as one of the naturally occurring radionuclides, is emitted by rocks and soil and has a half-life of 3.8 days. It tends to accumulate in enclosed spaces, such as underground mines and indoor spaces. The radioactive daughters of 222Rn, 214Po, and 218Po decay through alpha emissions and account for approximately 90% of the total radiation dose received by humans due to radon exposure [18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25].
Radon and its decay products are contained not only in soil and air but also in water. The solubility of radon in water is one of its most important properties; therefore, it can be transported large distances through soil [26,27,28]. The concentration of radon in water depends on the original source of that water. Rainwater washes out radon and its decay products from the air, while radon from the core of the earth diffuses into the groundwater.
About half of the world’s drinking water comes from underground waters. Underground water predominately moves through rocks that contain natural uranium. Uranium, by its decay, releases radon into the area’s water. In this way, radon can be dissolved and deposited in underground springs. Therefore, a significant contribution to the general exposure to radon and its decay products comes from ingesting drinking water from underground sources via excavated and drilled wells [26,27,29,30,31,32]. Drinking water that has been enriched with radon can be harmful to your health in two different ways: by inhaling it, after the radon has been transferred from the water to the air inside your home, and by ingesting it [9].
Recent studies have indicated that the annual effective dose from 222Rn is 1.3 mSv y−1, contributing to a total natural exposure of 2.40 mSv y−1 (more than 50%) [33,34]. According to a previous study [35], the World Health Organization (WHO) states that “1–7% of all lung cancer deaths are caused by radon levels in water, while 10–15% of total indoor radon may be attributed directly to outgassing from tap water” [36]. The maximum contamination level for radon in drinking water is 11.1 Bq/L, according to USEPA (the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States) regulations [36,37,38,39,40]. The European Union Commission and the World Health Organization have proposed that the standard limit of concentrations of 222Rn in drinking water should be set at 100 Bq/L [36,39]. In general, groundwater resources, rather than surface water, have much higher concentrations of radioactive materials such as 222Rn [30,31,32,37,40,41,42].
Several researchers and international scientific organizations have rated radon as carcinogenic and as a serious health issue [43,44,45,46]. Long-term exposure of the public to elevated amounts of radon and its progeny produces numerous detrimental consequences, such as alterations to respiratory function and the growth of lung cancer [47,48].
Most of these studies have concluded that there are strong correlations between the concentration of radon and the geology of the surrounding environment. The consumption of water containing enhanced activity concentrations of 222Rn could elevate the effective dose received by humans and raise the cancer risk [46]. The behavior of radon in Lagos’ coastal plains and alluvial aquifers is being investigated, demonstrating the influence of the parent deposit radionuclide.
In most countries of Africa, such as Nigeria, urban regions are regularly affected by the problem of potable water availability, caused by human activities and industrialization. This problem may lead to pollution and a lowering of water quality. Leachate from domestic and industrial wastes also poses a high risk to the quality of underground water. As reported in numerous studies on the health risks linked to radon in water, it is, therefore, crucial to assess radon concentrations from the perspective of radiation [49,50].
The assessment of radon concentrations is essential from the perspective of radiation safety and health, as reported in numerous studies on the health risks linked to radon in water [51,52,53]. Therefore, this study aimed to measure radon activity and estimate the radiological risk due to radon inhalation and ingestion, using water samples from the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria. The findings of this inquiry will contribute to the radon database and supply information to inform the relevant policies.

2. Materials and Methods

Sixteen groundwater and surface-water samples (wells, boreholes, and sachets) were collected from six different locations within the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria. The collection sites are presented in Figure 1. Ojo’s sedimentary geology is clearly demonstrated. Most of the coastal plain sands, lagoon sediments, and littoral sands are made up of alluvial deposits. The land on the state’s northern border has topographically low-lying soils that do not rise very high above sea level [54].

Radon Measurement

The radon detector (RAD7) manufactured by the Durridge Company, Inc., in the USA, is a portable radon detector offering fast measurement that is widely used to measure the radon concentration in water samples. Its lower limit detection (LLD) is less than 0.37 Bq/L.
Using a RAD7, H2O samples yield results after 30 min of analysis, with a sensitivity that matches or exceeds that of liquid scintillation methods (RAD7, RAD H2O). The setup of a RAD7 being used to measure 222Rn activity in water samples is shown in Figure 2. The accuracy of radon sampling in water measurement when utilizing a RAD7 is affected by numerous factors, such as the technique used for sampling, sample size, counting time, temperature, relative humidity, and background effects. The water sample is representative of the water being tested, in the sense that it has never been in contact with the air. In the standard sampling method, a 250 mL vial is filled with water and taken for radon concentration measurement. Radon concentrations of less than 100 Bq/L are observed; for radon concentrations higher than 100 Bq/L, a 40 mL vial is used.
Since, in this investigation, the radon concentration in water was unknown, samples of both sizes were taken. When sampling tap water, the water was left to run for 10 min before taking the sample, to let out the water from the possibly stagnant pipe section. The sampling vial (volume 250 mL) was placed in the bottom of the bowl, and the tube end was put into the vial. The water was allowed to flow for a while, keeping the vial full and flushing it with fresh water. The vial cap was put on while still under the water.
Due to the impact of relative humidity on measurements, the RAD7 counter should be dried out thoroughly before taking measurements. High humidity reduces the efficiency of collection of the 218Po atoms, the first decay state of radon, inside the chamber. However, the 218Po half-life of 3.05 min means that almost all the decays that are counted come from the mode as posited.
The annual effective dose due to the ingestion of radon from underground water, E(ing), was calculated using Equation (1) [55,56]:
E(ing) = CRn (Bq/L) × DCF × Crw
where CRn = the mean radon (222Rn) activity concentration in water, DCF = dose conversion factor = 3.5 nSv/Bq, and Crw = annual consumption rate of water = 730 L/y [56].
The annual effective dose of inhalation E(inh) of radon from water can be obtained from Equation (2) (UNSCEAR, 2000) [56,57]:
E(inh) = CRn (Bq/L) × R × D × F × T
where CRn is the mean radon (222Rn) activity concentration in water, R is the ratio of radon in air to radon in water (10−4), D is the dose conversion factor of radon (9 nSvh−1(Bq/m3))−1, F is the indoor equilibrium factor between radon and its progeny (0.4), and T is the time indoors (7000 hy−1) [56,58]. This equation is applied because the water under study is pumped through public water pipelines.

3. Results

The mean radon activity concentrations of the sixteen samples of water, taken from six different locations within the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria and measured with a RAD7 counter, are presented in Figure 3. The radon activity concentrations were above the 11.10 Bq/L (the action level recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency) [40], except for two samples (7 and 8), which were lower than this limit at 10.80 and 6.04 BqL−1, respectively. None of the water samples has a radon activity concentration value of up to 100 Bq/L, the value recommended by the European Union Commission to be the upper bound value at which remedial action is required [39]. A normal distribution histogram of the measured radon activity concentrations for the sixteen samples is presented in Figure 4.
The mean value for all samples is 18.80 ± 7.40 Bq/L (Figure 4). The value of error (7.40) in the mean value, around 40% of the activity concentration, is due to the difference in the activity concentration from site to site. Therefore, for each site, the average activity concentrations of radon, independent of the source (sea, well, borehole, and sachet water), are shown in Figure 5. The maximum average is found at the Akesan site (30.40 ± 2.04 Bq/L). which is more than the recommended level of 11.10 Bq/L reported by [29], and the minimum average value is found at the Ipaye site (10.80 ± 5.18 Bq/L), which is nearly equal to the recommended level of 11.10 reported by [29]. The obtained results are comparable to those in the works of Oni et al. [59,60], which report radon concentration values in underground water in Nigeria at a range of 3.09 to 32.03 Bq/L. There is a need for a radon reduction action plan as all the water samples had higher values when compared to the maximum permissible limit of 0.10 Bq/L that has been set by the Nigerian Standards for Drinking Water Quality [61].
Based on the results of the activity concentrations of radon in the tested water samples, the annual effective dose due to exposure by ingestion or by inhalation from water is estimated and presented in Figure 6.
The samples have an annual effective dose from ingestion and inhalation of drinking and groundwater that is higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.2 mSv/y if consumed by children and the maximum limit of 0.1 mSv/y if consumed by adults that is recommended by the WHO and the European Union Commission [36,39].
The annual effective dose ranges, with their mean and distribution, comprising ingestion and inhalation are shown in Figure 7. A strong Pearson correlation (0.93) between the annual ingestion and inhalation effective dose is observed, as presented in Table 1. With a value of 0.936, a strong Pearson correlation also exists between the annual effective ingestion dose and radon activity concentration for the measured water samples. This agrees with the WHO report, which says that “a higher radon dose is received from inhaling radon compared with ingestion”.

4. Conclusions

The aim of this research is to measure the activity and estimate the radiological risk due to radon inhalation and ingestion, as tested in water samples from the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria. The radon activity levels in the drinking and groundwater were analyzed for 16 samples from 6 different locations within the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria. The radon level in water is higher than the safe limits of 11.1 Bq/L set by the EPA regulations, except at two sample points in Ipaye. All the water samples had higher values when compared to the maximum permissible limit of 0.1 Bq/L that is set by the Nigerian Standards for Drinking Water Quality. The weighted mean of the total annual effective doses from ingestion and inhalation for drinking and groundwater is higher than the safe limit of 0.1 mSv/y recommended by the WHO and the EU Commission. The results demonstrate that the drinking and groundwater in selected locations in the Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria need frequent monitoring and evaluation with regard to radon values. Radon reduction action plans are required and recommended for drinking and consumable water in the studied locations, to reduce the potential risks.
The public water distribution system should also be revisited, and efforts should be made to educate and enlighten the public on the risks of radon, its negative health effects, and the remedial actions necessary to reduce radon concentrations in water.
The obtained results promote the development and the update of databases recording radon levels in drinking and groundwater in the Ojo Local Government area, which will help in policy- and decision-making concerning radon within the country. Furthermore, the radon concentration in groundwater should be investigated across all geopolitical zones in Nigeria. This will help in investigating radon risk areas and in seeking ways to protect the population from the risks associated with radon ingestion and inhalation, which have been associated with the incidence of stomach and lung cancers. There is also a need to carry out epidemiological studies to investigate the incidence of lung and stomach cancer in the study area and in other areas in Nigeria where high radon concentrations have been observed.

Author Contributions

M.M.: Resources, writing—review and editing, and conceptualization; M.A.O.: investigation and formal analysis; A.K.A.: project administration; O.A.J.: supervision and visualization; A.A.S.: methodology and data curation; H.K.: validation and writing—original draft. All authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Ganiyu, S.A.; Olurin, O.T.; Azeez, M.A.; Jegede, O.A.; Okeh, A.; Kuforiji, H.I. Evaluation of major anions, halide ions, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents in groundwater from shallow hand-dug wells near Ona River, Ibadan, Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 19, 4997–5014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. De Groot, R.S.; Wilson, M.A.; Boumans, R.M.J. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 393–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ogunkunle, T.J.; Adewumi, A.; Adepoju, A.O. Biodiversity: Overexploited but underutilized natural resource for human existence and economic development. Environ. Ecosyst. Sci. 2019, 3, 26–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Geissen, V.; Mol, H.; Klumpp, E.; Umlauf, G.; Nadal, M.; Van der Ploeg, M.; Van de Zee, S.E.; Ritsema, C.J. Emerging pollutants in the environment: A challenge for water resource management. Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 2015, 3, 57–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Clarke, R.; Healy, M.G.; Fenton, O.; Cummins, E. A quantitative risk ranking model to evaluate emerging organic contaminants in biosolid amended land and potential transport to drinking water. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 2016, 22, 958–990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Egboka, B.C.; Nwankwor, G.I.; Orajaka, I.P.; Ejiofor, A.O. Principles and problems of environmental pollution of groundwater resources with case examples from developing countries. Environ. Health Perspect. 1989, 83, 39–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Gavrilescu, M.; Pavel, L.V.; Cretescu, I. Characterization and remediation of soils contaminated with uranium. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 163, 475–510. [Google Scholar]
  8. Ravikumar, P.; Somashekar, R.K. Natural 3H radioactivity analyses in groundwater and estimation of committed effective dose due to groundwater ingestion in Varahi and Markandeya river basins, Karnataka State, India. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2011, 288, 271–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rangaswamy, D.R.; Srinivasa, E.; Srilatha, M.C.; Sannappa, J. Measurement of radon concentration in drinking water of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. Artic. 2016, 307, 907–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Srinivasa, E.; Rangaswamy, D.R.; Sannappa, J. Determination of radon activity concentration in drinking water and evaluation of the annual effective dose in Hassan district, Karnataka state, India. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. Artic. 2015, 305, 665–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Harrell, J.A.; Belsito, M.E.; Kumar, A. Radon hazards associated with outcrops of Ohio Shale in Ohio. Environ. Earth Sci. 1991, 18, 17–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Taat, S.; Eko, H. Hydrochemical and environmental isotopes analysis for characterizing a complex karst hydrogeological system of Watuputih area, Rembang, Central Java, Indonesia. Hydrogeol. J. 2020, 28, 1635–1659. [Google Scholar]
  13. Auvinen, A.; Kurttio, P.; Pekkanen, J.; Pukkala, E.; Ilus, T.; Salonen, L. Uranium and other natural radionuclides in drinking water and risk of leukemia: A case-cohort study in Finland. Cancer Causes Control. 2002, 13, 825–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Madzunya, D.; Dudu, V.; Mathuthu, M.; Manjoro, M. Radiological health risk assessment of drinking water and soil dust from Gauteng and North West Provinces, in South Africa. Heliyon 2020, 6, e03392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Chmielewska, I.; Chałupnik, S.; Wysocka, M.; Smoliński, A. Radium measurements in bottled natural mineral-, spring- and medicinal waters from Poland. Water Resour. Ind. 2020, 24, 100133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Pourimani, R.; Nemati, Z. Measurement of Radionuclide Concentration in Some Water Resources in Markazi Province, Iran. Iran. J. Med. Phys. 2016, 13, 49–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Parhoudeh, M.; Khoshgard, K.; Zare, M.R.; Ebrahiminia, A. Measurement of the natural radioactivity level of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K radionuclides in drinking water of residential areas in Kermanshah province (Iran) using gamma spectroscopy. Iran. J. Med. Phys. 2019, 16, 98–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Badhan, K.; Mehra, R.; Sonkawade, R.G. Measurement of radon concentration in ground water using RAD7 and assessment of average annual dose in the environs of NITJ, Punjab, India. India J. Pure Appl. Phys. 2010, 48, 508–511. [Google Scholar]
  19. Kumar, A.; Kaur, M.; Sharma, S.; Mehra, R. A study of radon concentration in drinking water samples of Amritsar city of Punjab (India). Radiat. Prot. Environ. 2016, 39, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Binesh, A.; Arabshahi, H.; Pourhabib, Z. Radioactivity and dose assessment of heavy radioactive pollution, radon and radium from water sources of 3 northern regions in Iran. Int. J. Phys. Sci. 2011, 6, 7969–7977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Tawfiq, N.F.; Rasheed, N.O.; Aziz, A.A. Measurement of indoor radon concentration in various dwellings of Baghdad Iraq. Int. J. Phys. 2015, 3, 202–207. [Google Scholar]
  22. Ravikumar, P.; Somashekar, R.K. Distribution of 222Rn in groundwater and estimation of resulting radiation dose to different age groups: A case study from Bangalore City. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 2018, 24, 174–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Asimakou, K.; Kallithrakas-Kontos, N.; Vafeidis, A.; Manoutsoglou, E. Distribution of Radon Concentrations in Active and Inactive Underground Mines: A Literature Review. Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Singh, P.; Singh, P.; Singh, S.; Sahoo, B.; Sapra, B.; Bajwa, B. A study of indoor radon, thoron and their progeny measurement in Tosham region Haryana, India. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2015, 8, 226–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  25. Balasubramaniam, M.; Pawade, A.; Charhate, D. A Prognosis of the Cause and Effects of Radon on the Built Environment. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Advances in Computational Techniques (IC-RACT), Online, 26–27 June 2020. [Google Scholar]
  26. Sanjon, E.P.; Maier, A.; Hinrichs, A.; Kraft, G.; Drossel, B.; Fournier, C. A combined experimental and theoretical study of radon solubility in fat and water. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 10768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kasić, A.; Kasumović, A.; Adrović, F.; Hodžić, M. Radon measurements in well and spring water of the Tuzla area, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 2016, 67, 332–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Jobbágy, V.; Altzitzoglou, T.; Malo, P.; Tanner, V.; Hult, M. A brief overview on radon measurements in drinking water. J. Environ. Radioact. 2017, 173, 18–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. USEPA. Radon in Drinking Water Health Risk Reduction and Cost Analysis; Federal Register: Washington, DC, USA, 1999.
  30. Fakhri, Y.; Kargosha, M.; Langarizadeh, G.; Zandsalimi, Y.; Amirhajeloo, L.R.; Moradi, M.; Moradi, B.; Mirzaei, M. Effective Dose Radon 222 of the Tap Water in Children and Adults People; Minab City, Iran. Glob. J. Health Sci. 2016, 8, 234–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Amin, R.M. Evaluation of radon gas concentration in the drinking water and dwellings of south west Libya, using CR-39 detectors. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2013, 4, 484–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Al-harahsheh, S.; Al-dalabeeh, M. Measurement of Radon Levels in the Groundwater of Al-Rusaifah City in Zarqa Governorate Using Liquid Scintillation Counter. Jordan J. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 11, 98–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Jasaitis, D.; Pečiulienė, M. Natural Radioactivity and Radon Exhalation from Building Materials in Underground Parking Lots. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 7475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Gogoi, P.P.; Barooah, D. Assessment of radon exhalation rates, effective radium content and radiological exposure dose, of coal and rocks in Tiru Valley Coal Field, India using track etched technique. Phys. Scr. 2022, 97, 085005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. El-Araby, E.H.; Soliman, H.A.; Abo-Elmagd, M. Measurement of radon levels in water and the associated health hazards in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2019, 12, 31–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Hopke, P.; Borak, T.B.; Doull, J.; Cleaver, J.E.; Eckerman, K.F.; Gundersen, L.C.S.; Harley, N.H.; Hess, C.T.; Kinner, N.E.; Kopecky, K.J.; et al. Health Risks Due to Radon in Drinking Water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2000, 34, 921–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Grasty, R.L.; Lamarre, J.R. The annual effective dose from natural sources of ionising radiation in Canada. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2004, 108, 215–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Naskar, A.K.; Gazi, M.; Mondal, M.; Deb, A. Water radon risk in Susunia hill area: An assessment in terms of radiation dose. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 11160–11171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. European Union Commission. Recommendation on the protection of the public against exposure to radon in drinking water supplies. Off. J. Eur. Community 2001, OJ L 344, 85–88. [Google Scholar]
  40. Khaled, S.D.; Khaled, A.M.; Shaban, R.H.; Baset, A.A. Measurement of 222Rn concentration levels in drinking water samples from Qena city (Egypt) and evaluation of the annual effective doses. Int. J. Radiat. Res. 2020, 18, 227–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Mohamed, A.; Mahdy, H.T. Indoor Radon Concentration in Some Villages of Al-Lieth Province in Saudi Arabia for Applied Science Indoor Radon Concentration in Some Villages of Al-Lieth Province in Saudi Arabia. J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Appl. Sci. 2020, 6, 48–50. [Google Scholar]
  42. Isinkaye, M.O.; Matthew-Ojelabi, F.; Adegun, C.O.; Fasanmi, P.O.; Adeleye, F.A.; Olowomofe, O.G. Annual effective dose from 222Rn in groundwater of a Nigeria University campus area. Appl. Water Sci. 2021, 11, 85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Mohammed, A.U.; Aris, A.Z.; Ramli, M.F.; Isa, N.M.; Arabi, A.S.; Orosun, M.M. A Monte Carlo simulation of unmitigated risk of radon exposure from soil and groundwater around Maiganga Coal Mine, North-Eastern Nigeria. Arab. J. Geosci. 2022, 15, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Vogiannis, E.G.; Nikolopoulos, D. Radon sources and associated risk in terms of exposure and dose. Front. Public Health 2015, 2, 207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. National Research Council. Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  46. World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants; World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe: Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.
  47. Bersimbaev, R.; Pulliero, A.; Bulgakova, O.; Kussainova, A.; Aripova, A.; Izzotti, A. Radon biomonitoring and microRNA in lung cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 2154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Darby, S.; Hill, D.; Auvinen, A.; Barros-Dios, J.M.; Baysson, H.; Bochicchio, F.; Deo, H.; Falk, R.; Forastiere, F.; Hakama, M.; et al. Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: Collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies. BMJ 2005, 330, 223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Wilkinson, G.S. Gastric Cancer in New Mexico Counties with Significant Deposits of Uranium. Arch. Environ. Health Int. J. 1985, 40, 307–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Focazio, M.J.; Szabo, Z.; Kraemer, T.F.; Mullin, A.H.; Barringer, T.H.; DePaul, V. Occurrence of Selected Radionuclides in GROUND WATER USED for Drinking Water in the United States: A Targeted Reconnaissance Survey, 1998; US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2001.
  51. World Health Organization. WHO Handbook on Indoor Radon: A Public Health Perspective; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
  52. Al-Zoughool, M.; Krewski, D. Health effects of radon: A review of the literature. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 2009, 85, 57–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Nugraha, E.D.; Hosoda, M.; Mellawati, J.; Untara, U.; Rosianna, I.; Tamakuma, Y.; Modibo, O.B.; Tokonami, S. Radon activity concentrations in natural hot spring water: Dose assessment and health perspective. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Adeoti, L.; Ojo, A.O.; Adegbola, R.B.; Fasakin, O.O. Geoelectric assessment as an aid to geotechnical investigation at a proposed residential development site in Ilubirin, Lagos, Southwestern Nigeria. Arab. J. Geosci. 2016, 9, 338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Somlai, K.; Tokonami, S.; Ishikawa, T.; Vancsura, P.; Gáspár, M.; Jobbágy, V.; Somlai, J.; Kovács, T. 222Rn concentrations of water in the Balaton Highland and in the southern part of Hungary, and the assessment of the resulting dose. Radiat. Meas. 2007, 42, 491–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. UNSCEAR. Exposures from Natural Radiation Sources (Annex B). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2000; pp. 84–141. [Google Scholar]
  57. Suresh, S.; Rangaswamy, D.R.; Srinivasa, E.; Sannappa, J. Measurement of radon concentration in drinking water and natural radioactivity in soil and their radiological hazards. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2020, 13, 12–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Olaoye, M.; Ademola, A.; Jegede, O.; Khalaf, H.N.; Mostafa, M.Y. Estimation of radon excess lung cancer near some dumpsites in, Lagos, Nigeria. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 2021, 176, 109867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Jibril, M.K.; Garba, N.N.; Nasiru, R.; Ibrahim, N. Assessment of Radon Concentrations in Water Sources From Sabon Gari Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. FUDMA J. Sci. 2021, 5, 254–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Oni, E.A.; Oni, O.M.; Oladapo, O.O.; Olatunde, I.D.; Adediwura, F.E. Measurement of Radon Concentration in Drinking Water of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. J. Acad. Ind. Res. 2016, 4, 190–192. [Google Scholar]
  61. NIS-554-2015. Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality; SON: Aduja, Nigeria, 2007. [Google Scholar]
Analytica 03 00023 g001 550
Figure 1. Map of sites of water collection from Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria.
Figure 1. Map of sites of water collection from Ojo Local Government area in Nigeria.
Analytica 03 00023 g001
Analytica 03 00023 g002 550
Figure 2. The setup of the RAD7 detector used to measure Rn-222 activity in water samples.
Figure 2. The setup of the RAD7 detector used to measure Rn-222 activity in water samples.
Analytica 03 00023 g002
Analytica 03 00023 g003 550
Figure 3. Variations of the mean radon activity concentrations for the sixteen water samples, compared to the USEPA parametric value.
Figure 3. Variations of the mean radon activity concentrations for the sixteen water samples, compared to the USEPA parametric value.
Analytica 03 00023 g003
Analytica 03 00023 g004 550
Figure 4. Normal distribution histogram of the measured radon activity concentrations for the sixteen samples.
Figure 4. Normal distribution histogram of the measured radon activity concentrations for the sixteen samples.
Analytica 03 00023 g004
Analytica 03 00023 g005 550
Figure 5. The average activity concentrations of radon, independent of the source (sea, well, borehole, and sachet water).
Figure 5. The average activity concentrations of radon, independent of the source (sea, well, borehole, and sachet water).
Analytica 03 00023 g005
Analytica 03 00023 g006 550
Figure 6. The annual effective dose with ingestion and inhalation for the sixteen water samples.
Figure 6. The annual effective dose with ingestion and inhalation for the sixteen water samples.
Analytica 03 00023 g006
Analytica 03 00023 g007 550
Figure 7. The annual effective dose range, with means, due to ingestion and inhalation, for the sixteen water samples.
Figure 7. The annual effective dose range, with means, due to ingestion and inhalation, for the sixteen water samples.
Analytica 03 00023 g007
Table
Table 1. Pearson correlations between ingestion and inhalation of the annual effective doses, with radon concentrations.
Table 1. Pearson correlations between ingestion and inhalation of the annual effective doses, with radon concentrations.
Average Radon Conc.IngestionInhalation
Average Radon Conc.Pearson Corr.1
IngestionPearson Corr.0.936181
InhalationPearson Corr.0.999850.934161
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mostafa, M.; Olaoye, M.A.; Ademola, A.K.; Jegede, O.A.; Saka, A.A.; Khalaf, H. Measurement of Radon Concentration in Water within Ojo Axis of Lagos State, Nigeria. Analytica 2022, 3, 325-334. https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica3030023

AMA Style

Mostafa M, Olaoye MA, Ademola AK, Jegede OA, Saka AA, Khalaf H. Measurement of Radon Concentration in Water within Ojo Axis of Lagos State, Nigeria. Analytica. 2022; 3(3):325-334. https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica3030023

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mostafa, Mostafa, M. A. Olaoye, A. K. Ademola, O. A. Jegede, A. A. Saka, and Hyam Khalaf. 2022. "Measurement of Radon Concentration in Water within Ojo Axis of Lagos State, Nigeria" Analytica 3, no. 3: 325-334. https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica3030023

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop