Prevalence of and Influential Factors for Waterpipe Smoking among School-Attending Adolescents in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Setting
2.2. The Sample and Survey
2.3. Measures
2.4. Statistics
2.5. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Socioeconomic Variables
3.2. Parental Monitoring
3.3. Peer Group Influence
3.4. Tobacco, Cannabis, and Alcohol
3.5. Violence, Relationships and Delinquency
3.6. Multinomial Logistic Regression
4. Discussion
4.1. Prevalence
4.2. Influential Factors
4.3. Preventive Measures
4.4. Strengths and Weaknesses
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Waterpipe Smoking (WPS) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime | <30 Days | Total Sample | ||||||
Survey Questions/Variables | n | % | p-Value | n | % | p-Value | N | % |
Sex | 0.675 | 0.570 | ||||||
Girl (1) | 162 | 17.2 | 119 | 14.4 | 1024 | 50.2 | ||
Boy (0) | 159 | 17.9 | 126 | 15.4 | 954 | 46.8 | ||
Missing | 12 | 23.1 | 7 | 19.4 | 61 | 3.0 | ||
School type | 0.033 | 0.191 | ||||||
Private (1) | 179 | 18.3 | 122 | 13.9 | 976 | 47.9 | ||
Public (0) | 154 | 14.5 | 130 | 16.2 | 1063 | 52.1 | ||
Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Age at the time of the survey | 0.581 | 0.768 | ||||||
14 (0) | 19 | 14.3 | 12 | 9.0 | 133 | 6.5 | ||
15 (1) | 66 | 18.8 | 46 | 13.1 | 351 | 17.2 | ||
16 (1) | 78 | 17.4 | 65 | 14.5 | 449 | 22.0 | ||
17 (1) | 88 | 14.7 | 69 | 11.5 | 598 | 29.3 | ||
18 (0) | 49 | 16.7 | 37 | 12.6 | 293 | 14.4 | ||
19 and older (0) | 3 | 6.5 | 2 | 4.3 | 46 | 2.3 | ||
Missing | 30 | 17.8 | 18 | 10.7 | 169 | 8.3 | ||
Grade in school | 0.004 | 0.002 | ||||||
7th (0) | 8 | 33.3 | 70 | 11.1 | 46 | 2.3 | ||
8th (0) | 103 | 14.1 | 141 | 18.0 | 778 | 38.2 | ||
9th (1) | 179 | 20.8 | 24 | 11.4 | 927 | 45.5 | ||
10th (1) | 32 | 14.3 | 7 | 53.8 | 231 | 11.3 | ||
Missing | 11 | 23.4 | 10 | 25.0 | 57 | 2.8 | ||
Age-appropriate for class at school enrolment | 0.318 | 0.908 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 68 | 19.8 | 47 | 15.1 | 0.013 | 355 | 17.4 | |
No (0) | 214 | 16.6 | 167 | 14.5 | 1389 | 68.1 | ||
Younger than reference | 9 | 26.5 | 7 | 21.9 | 35 | 1.7 | ||
Missing | 42 | 16.5 | 31 | 16.9 | 260 | 12.8 | ||
Living in a 2-headed household | 0.228 | 0.178 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 145 | 15.9 | 111 | 13.6 | 977 | 47.9 | ||
No (0) | 138 | 18.2 | 107 | 16.0 | 819 | 40.2 | ||
Missing | 50 | 23.4 | 34 | 17.9 | 243 | 11.9 | ||
One or both parents have initiated or completed university education or vocational training | 0.163 | 0.022 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 200 | 18.8 | 157 | 156.5 | 1127 | 55.3 | ||
No (0) | 103 | 16.2 | 70 | 12.3 | 698 | 34.2 | ||
Missing | 30 | 16.2 | 25 | 16.1 | 214 | 10.5 | ||
One or both parents work outside the home | 0.294 | 0.744 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 275 | 18.0 | 205 | 15.1 | 1640 | 80.4 | ||
No (0) | 45 | 15.5 | 36 | 0.5 | 315 | 15.4 | ||
Missing | 13 | 18.6 | 11 | 13.9 | 84 | 4.1 | ||
Place of birth | 0.362 | 0.419 | ||||||
Bissau (1) | 218 | 18.1 | 161 | 14.9 | 1300 | 63.8 | ||
Elsewhere (0) | 90 | 16.3 | 65 | 13.4 | 601 | 29.5 | ||
Missing | 25 | 19.8 | 26 | 22.8 | 138 | 6.8 | ||
Portuguese spoken at home | 0.156 | 0.872 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 23 | 22.3 | 5 | 17.9 | 111 | 5.4 | ||
No (0) | 241 | 16.0 | 232 | 14.9 | 1622 | 79.5 | ||
Missing | 69 | 25.4 | 15 | 16.3 | 306 | 15.0 | ||
Kriol spoken at home | 0.008 | 0.086 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 193 | 18.1 | 145 | 15.2 | 1133 | 55.6 | ||
No (0) | 71 | 13.0 | 56 | 11.9 | 600 | 29.4 | ||
Missing | 69 | 25.4 | 51 | 20.5 | 306 | 15.0 | ||
Usage of social media in the last 12 months | 0.006 | 0.017 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 224 | 19.6 | 168 | 15.7 | 1212 | 59.4 | ||
No (0) | 57 | 13.7 | 44 | 10.9 | 445 | 21.8 | ||
Missing | 52 | 16.0 | 40 | 19.3 | 382 | 18.7 | ||
Family can sometimes, often, or almost always have a car | 0.036 | 0.304 | ||||||
Yes (1) | 159 | 20.2 | 92 | 13.4 | 830 | 40.7 | ||
No (0) | 116 | 16.0 | 114 | 15.3 | 780 | 38.3 | ||
Missing | 58 | 15.6 | 46 | 18.5 | 429 | 21.0 |
Waterpipe Smoking (WPS) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime | <30 Days | Total Sample | ||||||
Survey Questions/Variables | n | % | p-Value | n | % | p-Value | N | % |
(a) My parents set definite rules about what I can do at home | 0.196 | 0.271 | ||||||
Applies very well to me (1) | 128 | 16.7 | 94 | 12.8 | 810 | 39.7 | ||
Applies rather well to me (1) | 67 | 17.6 | 58 | 15.6 | 410 | 20.1 | ||
Applies rather poorly to me (0) | 54 | 21.7 | 43 | 17.8 | 265 | 13.0 | ||
Applies very poorly to me (0) | 18 | 16.2 | 13 | 12.4 | 115 | 5.6 | ||
Missing | 66 | 17.6 | 44 | 19.4 | 439 | 21.5 | ||
(b) My parents set definite rules on when I should be at home at night | 0.012 | 0.000 | ||||||
Applies very well to me (1) | 152 | 15.6 | 108 | 11.5 | 1043 | 51.2 | ||
Applies rather well to me (1) | 46 | 20.9 | 35 | 16.4 | 229 | 11.2 | ||
Applies rather poorly to me (0) | 32 | 23.2 | 32 | 24.1 | 146 | 7.2 | ||
Applies very poorly to me (0) | 36 | 22.8 | 33 | 21.4 | 168 | 8.2 | ||
Missing | 67 | 17.0 | 44 | 18.9 | 453 | 22.2 | ||
(c) My parents know whom I am with in the evenings | 0.107 | 0.008 | ||||||
Applies very well to me (1) | 162 | 17.1 | 125 | 16.2 | 813 | 39.9 | ||
Applies rather well to me (1) | 39 | 22.8 | 43 | 18.4 | 254 | 12.5 | ||
Applies rather poorly to me (0) | 22 | 19.8 | 28 | 18.7 | 158 | 7.7 | ||
Applies very poorly to me (0) | 30 | 15.4 | 62 | 21.0 | 311 | 15.3 | ||
Missing | 80 | 17.5 | 75 | 20.9 | 503 | 24.7 | ||
(d) My parents often talk to the parents of my friends | 0.885 | 0.784 | ||||||
Applies very well to me (1) | 71 | 15.6 | 60 | 13.6 | 490 | 24.0 | ||
Applies rather well to me (1) | 70 | 20.4 | 53 | 15.7 | 362 | 17.8 | ||
Applies rather poorly to me (0) | 44 | 15.4 | 38 | 13.8 | 304 | 14.9 | ||
Applies very poorly to me (0) | 66 | 19.0 | 48 | 14.2 | 363 | 17.8 | ||
Missing | 82 | 18.1 | 53 | 18.7 | 520 | 25.5 | ||
(e) My parents follow what I do in my recreational time | 0.023 | 0.000 | ||||||
Applies very well to me (1) | 117 | 15.5 | 87 | 12.0 | 806 | 39.5 | ||
Applies rather well to me (1) | 53 | 19.3 | 31 | 11.8 | 288 | 14.1 | ||
Applies rather poorly to me (0) | 38 | 19.0 | 36 | 18.3 | 215 | 10.5 | ||
Applies very poorly to me (0) | 63 | 23.2 | 57 | 21.4 | 287 | 14.1 | ||
Missing | 62 | 23.2 | 41 | 18.5 | 443 | 21.7 |
Waterpipe Smoking (WPS) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime | <30 Days | |||
Survey Questions * | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | OR (95% CI) | p-Value |
To what extent do you agree on the following: | ||||
(a) Sometimes, it is necessary to smoke cigarettes in order not to be left out of the peer group | 1.91 (1.37–2.65) | 0.000 | 2.87 (2.04–4.06) | 0.000 |
(b) Sometimes, it is necessary to drink alcohol in order not to be left out of the peer group | 2.11 (1.58–2.81) | 0.000 | 2.02 (1.46–2.79) | 0.000 |
(c) Sometimes, it is necessary to smoke cannabis (yamba) in order not to be left out of the peer group | 2.17 (1.54–3.07) | 0.000 | 2.19 (1.50–3.18) | 0.000 |
How many of your friends do you think do the following? | ||||
(d) Peers smoke cigarettes | 2.70 (2.07–3.52) | 0.000 | 2.37 (1.72–3.19) | 0.000 |
(e) Peers drink alcohol (beer, wine, or spirits) | 2.54 (1.95–3.31) | 0.000 | 2.42 (1.81–3.24) | 0.000 |
(f) Peers become drunk at least once a month | 2.11 (1.62–2.75) | 0.000 | 2.22 (1.65–2.99) | 0.000 |
(g) Peers smoke hash or marijuana | 2.74 (1.95–3.84) | 0.000 | 2.96 (2.06–4.26) | 0.000 |
Violence and peers | ||||
(h) Been a part of a group that punched an individual? | 2.53 (1.73–3.70) | 0.000 | 2.31 (1.50–3.55) | 0.000 |
(i) Been a part of a group physically hurting an individual? | 2.81 (2.01–3.94) | 0.000 | 3.61 (2.51–5.20) | 0.000 |
(j) Been a part of a group starting a fight with another group? | 1.71 (1.22–2.39) | 0.003 | 1.91 (1.32–2.74) | 0.001 |
(k) Been part of a group that teased another? | 2.10 (1.47–3.01) | 0.000 | 3.26 (2.25–4.73) | 0.000 |
(l) Friends fight with somebody | 2.01 (1.54–2.62) | 0.000 | 2.18 (1.63–2.93) | 0.000 |
(m) Friends pick fights or search out for fights | 2.32 (1.76–3.05) | 0.000 | 3.42 (1.79–3.28) | 0.000 |
Waterpipe Smoking (WPS) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime | <30 Days | |||
Variables * | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | OR (95% CI) | p-Value |
How often have you used? | ||||
Cigarettes, lifetime smoking | 3.35 (2.65–4.72) | 0.000 | 3.27 (2.28–4.49) | 0.000 |
Cigarettes, daily smoking | 3.28 (1.69–6.37) | 0.001 | 4.40 (2.43–9.10) | 0.000 |
Snuff, lifetime usage | 2.65 (1.58–4.44) | 0.001 | 6.20 (3.77–10.20) | 0.000 |
Snuff, usage < 30 days | 2.53 (1.41–4.55) | 0.003 | 6.94 (4.00–12.07) | 0.000 |
Chewing, lifetime usage | 3.81 (2.18–6.66) | 0.000 | 3.82 (2.09–6.99) | 0.000 |
Cannabis usage | ||||
Lifetime usage | 5.15 (3.00–8.84) | 0.000 | 7.91 (4.40–14.24) | 0.000 |
Alcohol | ||||
Lifetime usage | 3.66 (2.85–4.70) | 0.000 | 2.7 (2.06–3.61) | 0.000 |
Drinking < 30 days | 2.72 (2.05–3.63) | 0.000 | 3.98 (2.95–5.38) | 0.000 |
Drunk, lifetime | 3.52 (2.67–4.66) | 0.000 | 3.71 (2.72–5.04) | 0.000 |
Drunk < 30 days | 2.97 (2.12–4.16) | 0.000 | 4.93 (3.49–6.98) | 0.000 |
Waterpipe Smoking (WPS) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime | <30 Days | |||
Variables * | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | OR (95% CI) | p-Value |
Domestic violence: Have you experienced any of the following? | ||||
(a) A serious argument with your parents | 1.63 (1.24–2.14) | 0.001 | 1.71 (1.27–2.32) | 0.001 |
(b) Witnessed a serious argument by your parents | 2.02 (1.53–2.68) | 0.000 | 2.30 (1.70–3.11) | 0.000 |
(c) Witnessed physical violence in your home where an adult was involved | 1.87 (1.40–2.50) | 0.000 | 2.19 (1.61–2.98) | 0.000 |
(d) Witnessed psychological violence in your home where an adult was involved | 1.97 (1.47–2.64) | 0.000 | 2.37 (1.73–3.24) | 0.000 |
(e) Been involved in physical violence in your home where an adult was involved | 1.91 (1.42–2.57) | 0.000 | 2.11 (1.53–2.90) | 0.000 |
Sexual abuse: Have you experienced any of the following? | ||||
(f) Been a victim of sexual abuse | 2.13 (1.46–3.12) | 0.000 | 2.63 (1.77–3.92) | 0.000 |
(g) Experienced sexual abuse where an adult from within the family was involved | 2.19 (1.54–3.13) | 0.000 | 2.74 (1.89–3.97) | 0.000 |
(h) Experienced sexual abuse where an adult from outside the family was involved | 2.10 (1.58–2.79) | 0.000 | 2.05 (1.50–2.79) | 0.000 |
At what age (if ever) did you have a sexual relationship for the first time? | ||||
(i) Aged 11 years or less | 2.70 (1.72–4.23) | 0.000 | 2.31 (1.40–3.81) | 0.002 |
Relationships: Have you experienced any of the following? | ||||
(j) A break-up with a girlfriend/boyfriend | 1.96 (1.50–2.54) | 0.000 | 1.84 (1.38–2.46) | 0.000 |
(k) Been rejected by your friends | 1.54 (1.14–2.07) | 0.005 | 1.97 (1.43–2.69) | 0.000 |
(l) Been dismissed from class or sent to the disciplinary board | 2.39 (1.77–3.23) | 0.000 | 2.60 (1.88–3.59) | 0.000 |
(m) Been expelled from school | 1.82 (1.29–2.56) | 0.001 | 2.03 (1.40–2.93) | 0.000 |
Stealing and vandalising: How often (if ever) have you done any of the following during the last 12 months | ||||
(n) Stolen something worth less than three normal movie tickets | 2.50 (1.47–4.23) | 0.001 | 2.65 (1.50–4.69) | 0.002 |
(o) Stolen something worth more than three normal movie tickets | 2.84 (1.74–4.65) | 0.000 | 4.27 (2.55–7.13) | 0.000 |
(p) Used physical violence to rob/steal | 2.65 (1.62–4.34) | 0.000 | 3.74 (2.24–6.24) | 0.000 |
(q) Broken into a building or a car to steal | 2.40 (1.42–4.06) | 0.002 | 3.83 (2.24–6.53) | 0.000 |
(r) Damaged or vandalised things that did not belong to you | 2.40 (1.67–3.44) | 0.000 | 3.01 (2.04–4.42) | 0.000 |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Einarsdóttir, J.; Baldé, A.; Jandi, Z.; Boiro, H.; Gunnlaugsson, G. Prevalence of and Influential Factors for Waterpipe Smoking among School-Attending Adolescents in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Adolescents 2024, 4, 138-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4010010
Einarsdóttir J, Baldé A, Jandi Z, Boiro H, Gunnlaugsson G. Prevalence of and Influential Factors for Waterpipe Smoking among School-Attending Adolescents in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Adolescents. 2024; 4(1):138-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4010010
Chicago/Turabian StyleEinarsdóttir, Jónína, Aladje Baldé, Zeca Jandi, Hamadou Boiro, and Geir Gunnlaugsson. 2024. "Prevalence of and Influential Factors for Waterpipe Smoking among School-Attending Adolescents in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau" Adolescents 4, no. 1: 138-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4010010