Animals

Research

19 pages, 1291 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluating the Physiologic Effects of Alfaxalone, Dexmedetomidine, and Midazolam Combinations in Common Blue-Tongued Skinks (Tiliqua scincoides)

by Haerin Rhim, Ashleigh M. Godke, M. Graciela Aguilar and Mark A. Mitchell

Animals 2024, 14(18), 2636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14182636 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1091

Abstract

Common blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua scincoides) are popular pet reptiles; however, there has been limited research to investigate sedatives for this species. The purpose of this study was to measure the physiologic effects of four combinations of alfaxalone, dexmedetomidine, and midazolam for [...] Read more.

Common blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua scincoides) are popular pet reptiles; however, there has been limited research to investigate sedatives for this species. The purpose of this study was to measure the physiologic effects of four combinations of alfaxalone, dexmedetomidine, and midazolam for minor procedures such as intubation and blood collection. Eleven common blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua scincoides) were used for this prospective, randomized cross-over study. The subcutaneous combinations were used as follows: 20 mg/kg alfaxalone (A); 10 mg/kg alfaxalone and 1 mg/kg midazolam (AM); 0.1 mg/kg dexmedetomidine and 1 mg/kg midazolam (DM); and 5 mg/kg alfaxalone, 0.05 mg/kg dexmedetomidine, and 0.5 mg/kg midazolam (ADM). Heart rate, respiratory rate, palpebral reflex, righting reflex, escape reflex, toe pinch withdrawal reflex, tongue flicking, and the possibility of intubation were recorded at baseline and every 5 min for 60 min. Venous blood gases were measured at baseline, full sedation, and recovery. Heart and respiratory rates decreased significantly in all groups, but the reductions were most prominent in DM and ADM. Analgesic effects, as measured by the toe pinch withdrawal reflex, were only observed in DM and ADM. Intubation was possible in all four protocols; however, it was not possible in two DM skinks. Based on these trials, ADM and AM are recommended for minor procedures in blue-tongue skinks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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11 pages, 2088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Two Intravenous Propofol Doses after Jugular Administration for Short Non-Surgical Procedures in Red-Eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans)

by Lucia Victoria Bel, Paolo Selleri, Carmen Maria Turcu, Constantin Cerbu, Ioana Adriana Matei, Marco Masi and Iulia Melega

Animals 2024, 14(13), 1847; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131847 - 21 Jun 2024

Viewed by 726

Abstract

This study compares the effects of two different doses of propofol administered intravenously (IV), in the jugular vein, to red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). In this crossover study, 5 or 10 mg/kg propofol was administered to six Trachemys scripta elegans after [...] Read more.

This study compares the effects of two different doses of propofol administered intravenously (IV), in the jugular vein, to red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). In this crossover study, 5 or 10 mg/kg propofol was administered to six Trachemys scripta elegans after cannulation of the jugular vein. Each turtle received each dose, G1 (5 mg/kg IV) and G2 (10 mg/kg IV), after a 7-day washout period. The parameters evaluated were heart rate, palpebral reflex, cloacal reflex, muscle relaxation, ease of handling, sensitivity to anterior and posterior pinch stimuli, and possibility of intubation. Additionally, respiratory rate was measured when possible, and the times from propofol administration to full recovery and from intubation to extubation were recorded. None of the turtles in G1 could be intubated, and this dose provided little relaxation and ease of handling, with a duration of effect until full recovery of 12.16 ± 8.32 (SD) min for this group. In G2, five out of the six turtles could be intubated, and the duration of effect was 32.33 ± 5.85 (SD) min. Heart rates were influenced by manipulation for catheter placement. There were statistically significant differences (p value ≤ 0.05) between the two groups in muscle relaxation degree, handling, cloacal reflex, and possibility of intubation. The 5 mg/kg propofol dose was not sufficient to induce anesthesia, even when administered in the jugular vein, in red-eared sliders. A dose of 10 mg/kg IV or higher should be used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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22 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Neoplasia, Treatments, and Survival in Lizard Species

by Frank Willig, Fred J. Torpy, Scott H. Harrison, Elizabeth G. Duke, Brigid Troan, Amy M. Boddy, Lisa M. Abegglen and Tara M. Harrison

Animals 2024, 14(10), 1395; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14101395 - 7 May 2024

Viewed by 1849

Abstract

Neoplasia has been reported in lizards, but more research is needed to accurately document the prevalence and prognosis of the various known neoplasms that affect lizards. This study reviewed medical records from an online database, the Exotic Species Cancer Research Alliance (ESCRA), and [...] Read more.

Neoplasia has been reported in lizards, but more research is needed to accurately document the prevalence and prognosis of the various known neoplasms that affect lizards. This study reviewed medical records from an online database, the Exotic Species Cancer Research Alliance (ESCRA), and reviewed published literature to determine the prevalence of neoplasia, malignancy, metastasis, treatment strategies, and outcomes by species and sex. Records from 55 individual lizards, 20 different species, and 37 different tumors were identified. In the literature, 219 lizards, 59 species, and 86 unique tumors were identified from 72 published case reports. Potential signalment factors such as age, sex, and species were evaluated to see if they affected case outcome. Additional factors including neoplasia type, presence of metastasis, and types of pursued treatments were also evaluated. Statistical analysis was performed to determine whether a factor was significantly associated with animal death due to the identified neoplasia or with animal survival or death due to other causes (non-neoplastic outcomes). Komodo dragons and savannah monitors were more likely to die from neoplasia compared to other lizard species. Cases where the status of metastasis was unknown were significantly associated with death due to neoplasia. Having an unknown status of male versus female was significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. Leukemia and islet cell carcinoma were significantly associated with death due to neoplastic causes. Chondrosarcoma, myxosarcoma, osteosarcoma, and squamous cell carcinoma were significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. Surgery alone and radiation therapy alone each were significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death, while lizards not receiving treatment were significantly associated with death due to neoplasia. Benign neoplasia was significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. These results will aid in the improved diagnosis and management of neoplasia in lizard species, as well as expanding our understanding of prognostic indicators of neoplasia in lizards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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13 pages, 18366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Subcutaneous versus Intramuscular Dexmedetomidine–Midazolam–Ketamine–Morphine (DMKM) Mixture as Chemical Restraint for Endoscopic Sex Determination in Aldabra Giant Tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea)

by Marco Masi, Alessandro Vetere, Jacopo Casalini, Flavia Corsi, Francesco Di Ianni and Giordano Nardini

Animals 2023, 13(23), 3626; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13233626 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1222

Abstract

Sex identification through coelioscopy is a minimally invasive surgical technique used to determine the sex of chelonians by directly visualizing their internal reproductive organs. An adequate anaesthesiologic plan is essential to guarantee patient immobilization and proper analgesia during the entire surgical procedure. In [...] Read more.

Sex identification through coelioscopy is a minimally invasive surgical technique used to determine the sex of chelonians by directly visualizing their internal reproductive organs. An adequate anaesthesiologic plan is essential to guarantee patient immobilization and proper analgesia during the entire surgical procedure. In this study, we evaluated the effects of a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg/kg), midazolam (1 mg/kg), ketamine (8 mg/kg), and morphine (1 mg/kg) (DMKM) randomly delivered intramuscularly (IM) or subcutaneously (SC) in twenty-one Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea) into the right antebrachium for celioscopic sex identification. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), and body temperature (BT) were measured, along with the skeletal muscle tone of the thoracic and pelvic limbs, neck retraction reflex, palpebral reflex, and jaw tone every 15 min. The anaesthesiologic plan was considered to be adequate at the loss of the thoracic and pelvic limb retraction reflexes. After a 45 min interval, if the anaesthetic plan was deemed insufficient for the celioscopic procedure, a 5 mg/kg dose of propofol was administered intravenously into the subcarapacial venous plexus. At the end of the procedure, atipamezole (0.5 mg/kg) and flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) were administered intramuscularly into the left antebrachium as reversal agents. Both HR and RR decreased from baseline to both 15 and 30 min. Due to the persistence of thoracic and pelvic limb retraction reflexes 45 min after DMKM administration, 6/11 (55%) cases in the SC group required the additional administration of propofol, in contrast to only 1/10 (10%) cases in the IM group (p = 0.05). The recovery times were comparable between the successfully induced animals in the IM and SC groups. In this study, the intramuscular administration of a DMKM combination quickly produced chemical restraint, suitable for celioscopic sex determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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18 pages, 3516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Host Species in Experimental Ferlavirus Infection: Comparison of a Single Strain in Ball Pythons (Python regius) and Corn Snakes (Pantherophis guttatus)

by Michael Pees, Annkatrin Möller, Volker Schmidt, Wieland Schroedl and Rachel E. Marschang

Animals 2023, 13(17), 2714; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13172714 - 26 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1370

Abstract

Ferlaviruses are a cause of respiratory disease in snakes. Four genogroups (A, B, C, and tortoise) have been described. Disease development is believed to depend on virus, host, and environment-specific factors. There is evidence of transmission of individual strains between genera and families [...] Read more.

Ferlaviruses are a cause of respiratory disease in snakes. Four genogroups (A, B, C, and tortoise) have been described. Disease development is believed to depend on virus, host, and environment-specific factors. There is evidence of transmission of individual strains between genera and families of reptiles. A genogroup B virus previously used in a transmission study with corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) was applied intratracheally in ball pythons (Python regius) using the same protocol as for the corn snakes. Ball pythons became infected, with initial mild clinical signs noted four days post infection (p.i.), and the virus was detected first in the lungs on day 4 and spread to the intestine, pancreas, kidney and brain. Hematology showed an increase in circulating lymphocytes which peaked on day 28 p.i. Antibodies were detected beginning on day 16 and increased steadily to the end of the study. In comparison to corn snakes, ball pythons exhibited milder clinical signs and pathological changes, faster development of and higher antibody titers, and a hematological reaction dominated by lymphocytosis in contrast to heterophilia in corn snakes. These differences in host reaction to infection are important to understand ferlavirus epidemiology as well as for clinical medicine and diagnostic testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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13 pages, 2010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radiation Dose Reduction in Different Digital Radiography Systems: Impact on Assessment of Defined Bony Structures in Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps)

by Natalie Steiner, Eberhard Ludewig, Wiebke Tebrün and Michael Pees

Animals 2023, 13(10), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13101613 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 1736

Abstract

Three different digital detector systems were used to study the effect of a defined radiation dose reduction on the image quality of digital radiographs in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). A series of radiographs of seven bearded-dragon cadavers with a body mass [...] Read more.

Three different digital detector systems were used to study the effect of a defined radiation dose reduction on the image quality of digital radiographs in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). A series of radiographs of seven bearded-dragon cadavers with a body mass ranging from 132 g to 499 g were taken in dorsoventral projection. The digital systems employed included two computed radiography systems (CR) (one system with a needle-based and one with a powdered-based scintillator) and one direct radiography system (DR). Three levels of the detector dose were selected: A standard dose (defined based on the recommended exposure value of the CR_P, D/100%), a half dose (D/50%), and a quarter dose (D/25%). Four image criteria and one overall assessment were defined for each of four anatomic skeletal regions (femur, rib, vertebra, and phalanx) and evaluated blinded by four veterinarians using a predefined scoring system. The results were assessed for differences between reviewers (interobserver variability), radiography systems, and dosage settings (intersystem variability). The comparison of the ratings was based on visual grading characteristic (VGC) analysis. Dose reduction led to significantly lower scores in all criteria by every reviewer, indicating a linear impairment of image quality in different skeletal structures in bearded dragons. Scores did not differ significantly between the different systems used, indicating no advantage in using a computed or direct radiography system to evaluate skeletal structures in bearded dragons. The correlation was significant (p ≤ 0.05) for interobserver variability in 100% of the cases, with correlation coefficients between 0.50 and 0.59. While demonstrating the efficacy of the use of digital radiography in bearded dragons and the similar quality in using different computed or direct radiography systems, this study also highlights the importance of the appropriate level of detector dose and demonstrates the limits of post-processing algorithm to compensate for insufficient radiation doses in bearded dragons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

17 pages, 11468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Histological Variants of Squamous and Basal Cell Carcinoma in Squamates and Chelonians: A Comprehensive Classification

by Ferran Solanes Vilanova, Tom Hellebuyck and Koen Chiers

Animals 2023, 13(8), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13081327 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4174

Abstract

In the present study, the histological characteristics of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) obtained from 22 squamate and 13 chelonian species were retrospectively evaluated. While the examined tissues were originally diagnosed as 28 SCCs and 7 BCCs based on [...] Read more.

In the present study, the histological characteristics of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) obtained from 22 squamate and 13 chelonian species were retrospectively evaluated. While the examined tissues were originally diagnosed as 28 SCCs and 7 BCCs based on histological evaluation by a specialty diagnostic service, eight SCCs could be re-classified as BCCs and three SCCs proved to be non-neoplastic lesions. In addition, all SCCs and BCCs were classified into distinct histological variants. The SCCs could be categorized as one SCC in situ, three moderately differentiated SCCs, seven well-differentiated SCCs, and six keratoacanthomas. BCCs were classified as five solid BCCs, four infiltrating BCCs, five keratotic BCCs, and one basosquamous cell carcinoma. In addition, the present study reports the occurrence of BCCs in seven reptile species for the first time. In contrast to what has been documented in humans, IHC staining with the commercially available epithelial membrane antigen and epithelial antigen clone Ber-EP4 does not allow differentiation of SCCs from BCCs in reptiles, while cyclooxygenase-2 and E-cadherin staining seem to have discriminating potential. Although the gross pathological features of the examined SCCs and BCCs were highly similar, each tumor could be unequivocally assigned to a distinct histological variant according to the observed histological characteristics. Based on the results of this study, a histopathological classification for SCCs and BCCs is proposed, allowing accurate identification and differentiation of SCCs and BCCs and their histological variants in the examined reptile species. Presumably, BCCs are severely underdiagnosed in squamates and chelonians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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12 pages, 1011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Real-Time PCR Assay for the Detection of Devriesea agamarum in Lizards

by Maria Brockmann, Christoph Leineweber, Tom Hellebuyck, An Martel, Frank Pasmans, Michaela Gentil, Elisabeth Müller and Rachel E. Marschang

Animals 2023, 13(5), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13050881 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1721

Abstract

(1) Background: Devriesea (D.) agamarum is a potential cause of dermatitis and cheilitis in lizards. The aim of this study was to establish a real-time PCR assay for the detection of D. agamarum. (2) Methods: Primers and probe were selected [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Devriesea (D.) agamarum is a potential cause of dermatitis and cheilitis in lizards. The aim of this study was to establish a real-time PCR assay for the detection of D. agamarum. (2) Methods: Primers and probe were selected targeting the 16S rRNA gene, using sequences of 16S rRNA genes of D. agamarum as well as of other bacterial species derived from GenBank. The PCR assay was tested with 14 positive controls of different D. agamarum cultures as well as with 34 negative controls of various non-D. agamarum bacterial cultures. Additionally, samples of 38 lizards, mostly Uromastyx spp. and Pogona spp., submitted to a commercial veterinary laboratory were tested for the presence of D. agamarum using the established protocol. (3) Results: Concentrations of as low as 2 × 10⁴ colonies per mL were detectable using dilutions of bacterial cell culture (corresponding to approximately 200 CFU per PCR). The assay resulted in an intraassay percent of coefficient of variation (CV) of 1.31% and an interassay CV of 1.80%. (4) Conclusions: The presented assay is able to detect D. agamarum in clinical samples, decreasing laboratory turn-around time in comparison to conventional culture-based detection methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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10 pages, 733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical and Clinical Evaluation of Two Methods for Measuring Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate in Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi)

by James E. Bogan, Jr.

Animals 2023, 13(3), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13030464 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1653

Abstract

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a hematological test that can detect inflammatory activity within the body. Although not specific for any particular disease, ESR is often used as a screening “sickness indicator” due to its reliability and low cost. The Westergren method is [...] Read more.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a hematological test that can detect inflammatory activity within the body. Although not specific for any particular disease, ESR is often used as a screening “sickness indicator” due to its reliability and low cost. The Westergren method is a manual ESR technique commonly used but requires special graduated pipettes and over 1mL of whole blood, precluding its use in smaller patients where limited sample volumes can be obtained. A modified micro-ESR technique has been described using hematocrit capillary tubes but is used less commonly. ESR has been reported to be a useful inflammatory indicator in gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) and box turtles (Terrapene spp.) but not in Florida cottonmouth snakes (Agkistrodon conanti). Having an inexpensive screening test for inflammation can help guide medical decisions within conservation efforts of imperiled species. This study evaluated the correlation between these two ESR methodologies in threatened eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi, EIS) and found a very strong correlation (r_s = 0.897), without constant or proportional biases and a reference interval of 0 (90% CI -1-1)–9 mm/h (90% CI 8-11) was defined. Additionally, a significant difference was found between healthy EIS and EIS in mid-ecdysis (p = 0.006) and EIS with gastric cryptosporidiosis (p = 0.006), indicating ESR as a useful inflammatory indicator in EIS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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15 pages, 5979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gross, Histologic and Immunohistochemical Characteristics of Keratoacanthomas in Lizards

by Ferran Solanes, Koen Chiers, Marja J. L. Kik and Tom Hellebuyck

Animals 2023, 13(3), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13030398 - 24 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2770

Abstract

The present study describes the clinical behavior as well as the histopathologic and immunohistochemical characteristics of keratoacanthomas (Kas) in three different saurian species. While Kas presented as two dermal lesions in a bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), multicentric Kas were observed in [...] Read more.

The present study describes the clinical behavior as well as the histopathologic and immunohistochemical characteristics of keratoacanthomas (Kas) in three different saurian species. While Kas presented as two dermal lesions in a bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), multicentric Kas were observed in three panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) and a veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus). Macroscopically, Kas presented as dome-shaped skin tumors with a centralized keratinous pearl and a diameter ranging from 0.1–1.5 cm. In all lizards, Kas were predominantly located at the dorsolateral body wall, and KA of the eyelid was additionally observed in three out of four chameleons. Histologically, KAs presented as relatively well-defined, circumscribed epidermal proliferations that consisted of a crateriform lesion containing a central keratinous pearl with minimally infiltrating borders. In all KAs, a consistent immunohistochemical pattern was observed, with the expression of cyclooxygenase-2, E-cadherin, and pan-cytokeratin. A follow-up period of one to two years was established in all lizards. While no recurrence was observed in the panther chameleons, recurrence of a single keratoacanthoma was observed in the bearded dragon after one year, and in the veiled chameleon, multicentric keratoacanthomas reappeared during a follow-up period of two years. We describe KA as a previously unrecognized neoplastic entity in lizards that constitutes a low-grade, non-invasive but rapidly growing skin tumor that may show a multicentric appearance, especially in chameleons. As previously postulated for dermal squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), artificial ultraviolet lighting may play an important role in the oncogenesis of KAs in lizards. Although dermal SCCs in lizards show similar predilection sites and gross pathologic features, our results suggest that KA should be considered as a histologic variant of SCC that represents a rather benign squamous proliferation in comparison to conventional SCCs. Early diagnosis of KA and reliable discrimination from SCCs are essential for the prognosis of this neoplastic entity in lizards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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13 pages, 1848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Prefemoral Endoscope-Assisted Surgery and Transplastron Coeliotomy in Chelonian Reproductive Disorders

by Tom Hellebuyck and Ferran Solanes Vilanova

Animals 2022, 12(23), 3439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12233439 - 6 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2394

Abstract

Throughout the last decades, the increased popularity of the keeping of reptiles has led to a better understanding of the captive needs of a wide variety of species. Although this is reflected by the successful captive reproduction in many of those species, reproductive [...] Read more.

Throughout the last decades, the increased popularity of the keeping of reptiles has led to a better understanding of the captive needs of a wide variety of species. Although this is reflected by the successful captive reproduction in many of those species, reproductive disorders such as preovulatory follicular stasis, postovulatory dystocia, secondary yolk coelomitis, and prolapse of the oviduct and male copulatory organ are commonly encountered in veterinary practice. In comparison to squamates, chelonians with postovulatory dystocia seem to be more responsive to oxytocin treatment, even in cases of chronic dystocia. There are various conditions, however, that necessitate the use of surgical procedures for the treatment of dystocia and other reproductive disorders in chelonians. Although restrictions may be encountered, the endoscope-assisted prefemoral approach is the least invasive and thus preferred technique instead of the ventral transplastron coeliotomy. The present report describes the diagnostic and surgical approach applied in seven cases of female chelonians with reproductive disorders. The therapeutic efficacy largely relied on the choice of minimally invasive endoscope-assisted surgery versus transplastron coeliotomy that was primarily dictated by the involved species, etiology, and associated pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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9 pages, 609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Amount of Food Ingested and Its Impact on the Level of Uric Acid in the Blood Plasma of Snakes

by Miloš Halán, Lucia Kottferová, Karol Račka and Anthony Lam

Animals 2022, 12(21), 2959; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12212959 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

In mammals, lipemic blood from sampling too soon after an animal feeds can have substantial effects on biochemical values. Plasma biochemical values in reptiles may be affected by species, age, season, and nutritional state. However, fasting status is not routinely considered when sampling [...] Read more.

In mammals, lipemic blood from sampling too soon after an animal feeds can have substantial effects on biochemical values. Plasma biochemical values in reptiles may be affected by species, age, season, and nutritional state. However, fasting status is not routinely considered when sampling reptile blood. Assessing uric acid levels in snakes is an important part of the diagnosis of the renal disease. However, the use of this biochemical indicator is undervalued without knowledge of natural uric acid fluctuations and the lack of differentiation from pathological changes. This study aimed to look at the relationship between snake feeding and uric acid concentrations. The investigation aims to better understand the feed-induced changes that occur and render the analysis of this biochemical parameter a more potent diagnostic tool. The study used ten snakes belonging to seven species, and basal uric acid values were evaluated by blood biochemical analysis before feeding. The snakes were fed in two rounds, with successive blood sampling and monitoring of uric acid changes carried out for each. The snakes were fed approximately 50% more with the second round of feeding to investigate the relationship between food supply and uric acid level. The findings show feeding led to substantial elevations in uric acid values, whereby postprandial concentrations were significantly elevated for up to 8 days after feeding. The findings show the significant changes in uric acid levels that occur after feeding and the similarities between postprandial rises in uric acid and those reported in snakes with renal disease. To minimize misdiagnosis and differentiate transient postprandial hyperuricemia from pathological increases, it is recommended that sufficient anamnestic data on time since the last feeding be collected, as well as repeated samples following weeks of fasting. This knowledge is crucial because the amount of feed in terms of intensity and volume has a significant effect on uric acid levels in the blood of snakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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12 pages, 1512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibodies against Two Testudinid Herpesviruses in Pet Tortoises in Europe

by Christoph Leineweber and Rachel E. Marschang

Animals 2022, 12(17), 2298; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12172298 - 5 Sep 2022

Viewed by 2145

Abstract

Herpesviruses are important pathogens of tortoises, and several serologically and genetically distinct virus types have been described in these animals. Virus neutralization testing is commonly used in Europe to determine previous infection with the two types most often found in pet European tortoises, [...] Read more.

Herpesviruses are important pathogens of tortoises, and several serologically and genetically distinct virus types have been described in these animals. Virus neutralization testing is commonly used in Europe to determine previous infection with the two types most often found in pet European tortoises, testudinid herpesvirus (TeHV) 1 and 3. In this retrospective study, the results of serological testing for antibodies against each of these viruses in serum or plasma samples from 1728 tortoises were evaluated, and antibody detection rates were compared based on virus type, host species, year, season, and country of origin. Antibodies (titer 2 or higher) against at least one of the two viruses used were detected in a total of 122 (7.06%; 95% CI 5.95–8.37%) of the animals tested. The antibody detection rates differed significantly depending on the tortoise species (p < 0.0001) and the year of sampling (TeHV1 p = 0.0402; TeHV3 p = 0.0482) for both virus types. For TeHV1, antibody detection rates differed significantly (p = 0.0384) by season. The highest detection rate was in summer (5.59%; 95% CI 4.10–7.58%), and the lowest was in fall (1.25%; CI 0.53–2.87%). TeHV1 antibody detection rates did not differ significantly (p = 0.7805) by country, whereas TeHV3 antibody detection rates did (p = 0.0090). The highest detection rate, 12.94% (95% CI 7.38–21.70%), was found in samples from Italy. These results support previous hypotheses on the species’ susceptibility to TeHV1 and 3 and the use of serology as a diagnostic test for the detection of herpesvirus-infected tortoises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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8 pages, 1940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Determination in Immature Sierra Nevada Lizard (Timon nevadensis)

by Alessandro Vetere, Michela Ablondi, Enrico Bigliardi, Matteo Rizzi and Francesco Di Ianni

Animals 2022, 12(16), 2144; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12162144 - 21 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2809

Abstract

Sex determination has a fundamental role in a captive breeding context, both for commercial reasons and in relation to animal welfare itself. However, this can be particularly difficult, especially in reptiles with little or no sexual dimorphism. Twenty-three clinically healthy young Sierra Nevada [...] Read more.

Sex determination has a fundamental role in a captive breeding context, both for commercial reasons and in relation to animal welfare itself. However, this can be particularly difficult, especially in reptiles with little or no sexual dimorphism. Twenty-three clinically healthy young Sierra Nevada lizards (Timon nevadensis) were included in this study for sex determination. The first attempt at sexing was carried out by cloacal probing. A small, buttoned probe was inserted very gently into the hemipenal pouches, and the length of the inserted part was evaluated and measured. Subsequently, for each animal, a contrast medium was administered into the cloaca, and radiography was performed within 5 min. Through probing, 11 males and 8 females were recognized. The test was, however, equivocal in four subjects. In contrast radiography, 14 males and 9 females were identified. All the animals were rechecked after 8 months through an ultrasound examination, confirming 15 of the 14 previously male sexed animals based on contrast radiography. All the animals identified as female (n = 9) by contrast radiography were confirmed. From these results, it seems that contrast radiography may have major sensitivity in sex determination compared to probing. This technique could represent a valid and less invasive aid for sexing young lizards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

32 pages, 44962 KiB

Open AccessReview

Anatomy, Physiology, and Disorders of the Spectacle, Subspectacular Space, and Its Lacrimal Drainage System in Squamates

by Tom Hellebuyck and Ferran Solanes Vilanova

Animals 2023, 13(6), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13061108 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6114

Abstract

Various squamate species have completely fused eyelids that make up a transparent spectacle. The spectacle is a continuation of the integument that is renewed with each shedding cycle and creates a narrow subspectacular or corneospectacular space that is filled with lacrimal fluid. The [...] Read more.

Various squamate species have completely fused eyelids that make up a transparent spectacle. The spectacle is a continuation of the integument that is renewed with each shedding cycle and creates a narrow subspectacular or corneospectacular space that is filled with lacrimal fluid. The latter is considered as the analogue of the conjunctival sac in other vertebrates. Almost all reptiles that have a spectacle lack a nictitating membrane, bursalis muscle, and lacrimal glands. The lacrimal fluid in the subspectacular space is secreted by the Harderian gland. The features of the spectacle and its lacrimal drainage system are an illustration of the enormous variation of the morphological adaptations that are seen in reptiles and one of the most distinguishable traits of snakes and most gecko species. Whereas ocular disease in squamates with a spectacle is infrequently seen in practice, disorders of the spectacle and the subspectacular space are commonly encountered. In order to apply an adequate diagnostic and therapeutic approach for these conditions, a sound knowledge and understanding of the anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the spectacle, subspectacular space, and lacrimal drainage system are fundamental. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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11 pages, 4750 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Successful Treatment of an Acinar Pancreatic Carcinoma in an Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps): A Case Report

by Johannes Hetterich, Marion Hewicker-Trautwein, Wencke Reineking, Lisa Allnoch and Michael Pees

Animals 2024, 14(13), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131976 - 4 Jul 2024

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Abstract

An adult, 362 g, male, intact inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was admitted to a veterinary clinic due to a temporary cloacal prolapse and a two-week history of reduced overall condition and forage intake. Physical examination revealed an approximately 2 × [...] Read more.

An adult, 362 g, male, intact inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was admitted to a veterinary clinic due to a temporary cloacal prolapse and a two-week history of reduced overall condition and forage intake. Physical examination revealed an approximately 2 × 1 cm round-shaped, rigid intracoelomic tissue mass. Multiple sand deposits were present on the cloacal mucous membranes, though no signs of cloacal prolapse were present. The lizard was otherwise responsive but showed reduced body tension and movement behavior. Initial fecal examination revealed a high-grade oxyuriasis. A 2 × 1.5 cm sized intracoelomic, well-vascularized, round-shaped mass was subsequently visualized by ultrasonography. After a two-day stabilization therapy, the intracoelomic mass was removed by performing a standard ventral coeliotomy under general anesthesia. Histopathological examination of the excised mass revealed an acinar pancreatic adenocarcinoma with infiltration of the peritumorous connective soft tissue. The lizard remained at the clinic for a further seven days. Its postsurgical condition improved slowly. However, the lizard started regular forage intake 10 days after surgery, and general behavior enhanced constantly within the following three weeks. The animal was presented for a follow-up six weeks after surgery, showing bright and alert behavior with no signs of disease or illness. The lizard was re-examined 20 months after the initial presentation due to a reduced overall condition and reduced food intake. Blood chemistry evaluation revealed markedly decreased protein parameters, and moderate ascites was identified ultrasonographically. A distinct association with the preceding neoplastic disease could not be made, and the lizard returned to its regular condition under supportive therapy within three weeks. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of successful treatment of a pancreatic carcinoma in a bearded dragon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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9 pages, 933 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Concurrent Detection of a Papillomatous Lesion and Sequence Reads Corresponding to a Member of the Family Adintoviridae in a Bell’s Hinge-Back Tortoise (Kinixys belliana)

by Johannes Hetterich, Monica Mirolo, Franziska Kaiser, Martin Ludlow, Wencke Reineking, Isabel Zdora, Marion Hewicker-Trautwein, Albert D. M. E. Osterhaus and Michael Pees

Animals 2024, 14(2), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020247 - 12 Jan 2024

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Abstract

An adult male Bell’s hinge-back tortoise (Kinixys belliana) was admitted to a veterinary clinic due to a swelling in the oral cavity. Physical examination revealed an approximately 2.5 × 1.5 cm sized, irregularly shaped tissue mass with villiform projections extending from [...] Read more.

An adult male Bell’s hinge-back tortoise (Kinixys belliana) was admitted to a veterinary clinic due to a swelling in the oral cavity. Physical examination revealed an approximately 2.5 × 1.5 cm sized, irregularly shaped tissue mass with villiform projections extending from its surface located in the oropharyngeal cavity. An initial biopsy was performed, and the lesion was diagnosed as squamous papilloma. Swabs taken for virological examination tested negative with specific PCRs for papillomavirus and herpesvirus. Further analysis of the oropharyngeal mass via metagenomic sequencing revealed sequence reads corresponding to a member of the family Adintoviridae. The tissue mass was removed one week after the initial examination. The oral cavity remained unsuspicious in follow-up examinations performed after one, five and twenty weeks. However, a regrowth of the tissue was determined 23 months after the initial presentation. The resampled biopsy tested negative for sequence reads of Adintoviridae. Conclusively, this report presents the diagnostic testing and therapy of an oral cavity lesion of unknown origin. The significance of concurrent metagenomic determination of adintovirus sequence reads within the tissue lesion is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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7 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Pancuronium Bromide for Chemical Immobilization of Adult Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus): A Field Study

by Lionel Schilliger, Chawki Najjar, Clément Paillusseau, Camille François, Frédéric Gandar, Hela Boughdiri and Marc Gansuana

Animals 2023, 13(10), 1578; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13101578 - 9 May 2023

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Abstract

(1) Background: Pancuronium bromide is a neuromuscular blocker used for immobilizing crocodiles that can be reversed with neostigmine. A recommended drug dose has only been established for saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), mostly based on trials in juveniles and subadults. After trialing [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Pancuronium bromide is a neuromuscular blocker used for immobilizing crocodiles that can be reversed with neostigmine. A recommended drug dose has only been established for saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), mostly based on trials in juveniles and subadults. After trialing a dose recommendation in a small cohort of nine Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), we developed and applied a new dose recommendation for large adult Nile crocodiles. (2) Methods: we trialed and adapted a pancuronium bromide (Pavulon 4 mg/2 mL) dose in Nile crocodiles originally established for saltwater crocodiles and applied the new dose for the immobilization of 32 Nile crocodiles destined for transport. Reversal was achieved with neostigmine (Stigmine 0.5 mg/mL). (3) Results: Nine crocodiles were included in the trial phase; the induction time was highly variable (average: 70 min; range: 20–143 min), and the recovery time was prolonged (average: 22 h; range: 50 min–5 days), especially in large animals after reversal with neostigmine. Based on these results, we established a dose-independent recommendation (3 mg pancuronium bromide and 2.5 mg neostigmine) for animals weighing ≥ 270 kg (TL ≥ ~3.8 m). When applied to 32 adult male crocodiles (BW range: 270–460 kg; TL range: 3.76–4.48 m), the shortest induction time was ~20 min and the longest ~45 min. (4) Conclusions: Pancuronium bromide and its antidote, neostigmine, are effective for the immobilization and reversal of adult male Nile crocodiles (TL ≥ 3.8 m or BW ≥ 270 kg) when given in a weight-independent fashion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

15 pages, 7159 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Egg Removal via Cloacoscopy in Three Dystocic Leopard Geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

by Alessandro Vetere, Enrico Bigliardi, Marco Masi, Matteo Rizzi, Elisa Leandrin and Francesco Di Ianni

Animals 2023, 13(5), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13050924 - 3 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5383

Abstract

Dystocia is a multifactorial, life-threatening condition commonly affecting pet reptiles. Treatment for dystocia can be either medical or surgical. Medical treatment usually involves the administration of oxytocin, but in some species or, in some cases, this treatment does not work as expected. Surgical [...] Read more.

Dystocia is a multifactorial, life-threatening condition commonly affecting pet reptiles. Treatment for dystocia can be either medical or surgical. Medical treatment usually involves the administration of oxytocin, but in some species or, in some cases, this treatment does not work as expected. Surgical treatments such as ovariectomy or ovariosalpingectomy are resolutive, but invasive in small-sized reptiles. In this paper, we describe three cases of post ovulatory egg retention in three leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) successfully treated through a cloacoscopic removal of the retained eggs, after a non resolutive medical treatment. The intervention was fast, non-invasive, and no procedure-related adverse effects were noted. The problem relapsed six months later in one animal, and a successful bilateral ovariosalpingectomy was performed. Cloacoscopy should be considered a valuable, non-invasive tool for egg removal in dystocic leopard geckos when the egg is accessible to manipulation. Recrudescence or complications such as adhesions, oviductal rupture, or the presence of ectopic eggs should recommend surgical intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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9 pages, 3180 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

A Novel Application of 3D Printing Technology Facilitating Shell Wound Healing of Freshwater Turtle

by Tsung-Fu Hung, Po-Jan Kuo, Fung-Shi Tsai, Pin-Huan Yu and Yu-Shin Nai

Animals 2022, 12(8), 966; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12080966 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Numerous cases and a shortage of resources usually limit wild animal rescue. New technology might save these severely injured wild animals from euthanasia by easing the requirement of intensive medication. Three-dimensional (3D) technologies provide precise and accurate results that improve the quality of [...] Read more.

Numerous cases and a shortage of resources usually limit wild animal rescue. New technology might save these severely injured wild animals from euthanasia by easing the requirement of intensive medication. Three-dimensional (3D) technologies provide precise and accurate results that improve the quality of medical applications. These 3D tools have become relatively low-cost and accessible in recent years. In the medical field of exotic animals, turtle shell defects are highly challenging because of inevitable water immersion. This report is the first attempt to apply the combination of 3D scanning, computer-aided design (CAD), and 3D printing to make a device that protects the wound from exposure to water or infection sources. The presented techniques successfully extricate a wild freshwater turtle from an extensive shell defect within a short period. Integration of multiple sciences to 3D technology can provide a facile model for veterinary medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Herpetological Medicine and Surgery)

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