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Batteries
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Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage
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Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage

A special issue of Batteries (ISSN 2313-0105).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 May 2021) | Viewed by 52317

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Tuti Mariana Lim

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore 639798, Singapore
Interests: energy storage technologies; materials recovery; advanced oxidation technologies (AOTs); hybrid membrane-AOTs
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Arjun Bhattarai

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Energy Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
Interests: energy storage; vanadium redox flow battery
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Zhongbao Wei

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Energy Research Institute @ NTU (ERIAN), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Interests: lithium-ion batteries; all-vanadium redox flow battery; battery management; system identification; condition monitoring; battery charge control

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power have shown great promise to relieve the dependence on fossil fuels, thereby achieving a low-carbon society. However, due to the intermittent nature of renewables, the power generated cannot provide stable and consistent power delivery. Thus, energy storage technologies, battery technologies in particular, are needed to address the challenges associated with modernizing the power grid. Amongst different battery technologies, flow batteries are regarded as the most promising candidates for large-scale energy storage systems, offering long hours of storage capacity.

This vision has driven intensive research into the development of flow battery technologies that combine performance and cost merits. In addition, the exploration of suitable battery management and control strategies is also key to enhancing the safety, reliability, and cost efficiency of the battery system. This Special Issue therefore seeks to synergize the state-of-the-art developments in flow batteries at both the cell and stack level, simulation, management and control. We cordially invite papers on technical developments, reviews, communications, and case studies that reflect the cutting-edge progress in this field.

Topics of interest of this special issue include, but are not limited to:

  • Reaction mechanisms;
  • Low cost membrane materials with excellent stability;
  • Electrode and membrane modification;
  • Electrolyte optimization and production;
  • Cost analysis and field analytics;
  • Methods for battery performance analysis and material characterization;
  • Modeling, simulation, and optimization for both cell design and system integration;
  • Battery management system.

Dr. Tuti Mariana Lim
Dr. Arjun Bhattarai
Dr. Zhongbao Wei
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Batteries is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Flow battery
  • Electrolyte, membrane
  • Electrode, stack cell
  • Battery cost analysis
  • Battery modeling
  • Battery management system

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 4010 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Kilowatt-Scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stacks Designed with Serpentine Flow Fields and Split Manifolds
by Ravendra Gundlapalli and Sreenivas Jayanti
Batteries 2021, 7(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7020030 - 6 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4529
Abstract
A low-pressure drop stack design with minimal shunt losses was explored for vanadium redox flow batteries, which, due to their low energy density, are used invariably in stationary applications. Three kilowatt-scale stacks, having cell sizes in the range of 400 to 1500 cm [...] Read more.
A low-pressure drop stack design with minimal shunt losses was explored for vanadium redox flow batteries, which, due to their low energy density, are used invariably in stationary applications. Three kilowatt-scale stacks, having cell sizes in the range of 400 to 1500 cm2, were built with thick graphite plates grooved with serpentine flow fields and external split manifolds for electrolyte circulation, and they were tested over a range of current densities and flow rates. The results show that stacks of different cell sizes have different optimal flow rate conditions, but under their individual optimal flow conditions, all three cell sizes exhibit similar electrochemical performance including stack resistivity. Stacks having larger cell sizes can be operated at lower stoichiometric factors, resulting in lower parasitic pumping losses. Further, these can be operated at a fixed flow rate for power variations of ±25% without any significant changes in discharge capacity and efficiency; this is attributed to the use of serpentine flow fields, which ensure uniform distribution of the electrolyte over a range of flow rates and cell sizes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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16 pages, 2140 KiB  
Article
Effects of State of Charge on the Physical Characteristics of V(IV)/V(V) Electrolytes and Membrane for the All Vanadium Flow Battery
by Wyndom S. Chace, Sophia M. Tiano, Thomas M. Arruda and Jamie S. Lawton
Batteries 2020, 6(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040049 - 6 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3633
Abstract
The VO2+/VO2+ redox couple commonly employed on the positive terminal of the all-vanadium redox flow battery was investigated at various states of charge (SOC) and H2SO4 supporting electrolyte concentrations. Electron paramagnetic resonance was used to investigate [...] Read more.
The VO2+/VO2+ redox couple commonly employed on the positive terminal of the all-vanadium redox flow battery was investigated at various states of charge (SOC) and H2SO4 supporting electrolyte concentrations. Electron paramagnetic resonance was used to investigate the VO2+ concentration and translational and rotational diffusion coefficient (DT, DR) in both bulk solution and Nafion membranes. Values of DT and DR were relatively unaffected by SOC and on the order of 10−10 m2s−1. Cyclic voltammetry measurements revealed that no significant changes to the redox mechanism were observed as the state of charge increased; however, the mechanism does appear to be affected by H2SO4 concentration. Electron transfer rate (k0) increased by an order of magnitude (10−6 ms−1 to 10−8 ms−1) for each H2SO4 concentrations investigated (1, 3 and 5 M). Analysis of cyclic voltammetry switching currents suggests that the technique might be suitable for fast determination of state of charge if the system is well calibrated. Membrane uptake and permeability measurements show that vanadium absorption and crossover is more dependent on both acid and vanadium concentration than state of charge. Vanadium diffusion in the membrane is about an order of magnitude slower (~10−11 m2s−1) than in solution (~10−10 m2s−1). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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20 pages, 3796 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of a Non-Aqueous Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Using a Deep Eutectic Solvent and Graphene-Modified Carbon Electrodes via Electrophoretic Deposition
by Barun Chakrabarti, Javier Rubio-Garcia, Evangelos Kalamaras, Vladimir Yufit, Farid Tariq, Chee Tong John Low, Anthony Kucernak and Nigel Brandon
Batteries 2020, 6(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6030038 - 13 Jul 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6424
Abstract
Common issues aqueous-based vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) face include low cell voltage due to water electrolysis side reactions and highly corrosive and environmentally unfriendly electrolytes (3 to 5 M sulfuric acid). Therefore, this investigation looks into the comparison of a highly conductive [...] Read more.
Common issues aqueous-based vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) face include low cell voltage due to water electrolysis side reactions and highly corrosive and environmentally unfriendly electrolytes (3 to 5 M sulfuric acid). Therefore, this investigation looks into the comparison of a highly conductive ionic liquid with a well-studied deep eutectic solvent (DES) as electrolytes for non-aqueous VRFBs. The latter solvent gives 50% higher efficiency and capacity utilization than the former. These figures of merit increase by 10% when nitrogen-doped graphene (N-G)-modified carbon papers, via a one-step binder-free electrophoretic deposition process, are used as electrodes. X-ray computed tomography confirms the enhancement of electrochemical surface area of the carbon electrodes due to N-G while electrochemical impedance spectra show the effect of its higher conductivity on improving RFB performance. Finally, potential strategies for the scaling-up of DES-based VRFBs using a simple economical model are also briefly discussed. From this study, it is deduced that more investigations on applying DESs as non-aqueous electrolytes to replace the commonly used acetonitrile may be a positive step forward because DESs are not only cheaper but also safer to handle, far less toxic, non-flammable, and less volatile than acetonitrile. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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16 pages, 2379 KiB  
Article
Vanadium Electrolyte for All-Vanadium Redox-Flow Batteries: The Effect of the Counter Ion
by Nataliya Roznyatovskaya, Jens Noack, Heiko Mild, Matthias Fühl, Peter Fischer, Karsten Pinkwart, Jens Tübke and Maria Skyllas-Kazacos
Batteries 2019, 5(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010013 - 18 Jan 2019
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 18336
Abstract
In this study, 1.6 M vanadium electrolytes in the oxidation forms V(III) and V(V) were prepared from V(IV) in sulfuric (4.7 M total sulphate), V(IV) in hydrochloric (6.1 M total chloride) acids, as well as from 1:1 mol mixture of V(III) and V(IV) [...] Read more.
In this study, 1.6 M vanadium electrolytes in the oxidation forms V(III) and V(V) were prepared from V(IV) in sulfuric (4.7 M total sulphate), V(IV) in hydrochloric (6.1 M total chloride) acids, as well as from 1:1 mol mixture of V(III) and V(IV) (denoted as V3.5+) in hydrochloric (7.6 M total chloride) acid. These electrolyte solutions were investigated in terms of performance in vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB). The half-wave potentials of the V(III)/V(II) and V(V)/V(IV) couples, determined by cyclic voltammetry, and the electronic spectra of V(III) and V(IV) electrolyte samples, are discussed to reveal the effect of electrolyte matrix on charge-discharge behavior of a 40 cm2 cell operated with 1.6 M V3.5+ electrolytes in sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. Provided that the total vanadium concentration and the conductivity of electrolytes are comparable for both acids, respective energy efficiencies of 77% and 72–75% were attained at a current density of 50 mA∙cm−2. All electrolytes in the oxidation state V(V) were examined for chemical stability at room temperature and +45 °C by titrimetric determination of the molar ratio V(V):V(IV) and total vanadium concentration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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11 pages, 42610 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Reactant Conversion in the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Using Spatially Resolved State of Charge Mapping
by Purna C. Ghimire, Arjun Bhattarai, Rüdiger Schweiss, Günther G. Scherer, Nyunt Wai, Tuti M. Lim and Qingyu Yan
Batteries 2019, 5(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010002 - 1 Jan 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6815
Abstract
Segmented cells enable real time visualization of the flow distribution in vanadium redox flow batteries by local current or voltage mapping. The lateral flow of current within thick porous electrodes, however, impairs the local resolution of the detected signals. In this study, the [...] Read more.
Segmented cells enable real time visualization of the flow distribution in vanadium redox flow batteries by local current or voltage mapping. The lateral flow of current within thick porous electrodes, however, impairs the local resolution of the detected signals. In this study, the open circuit voltage immediately after the cessation of charge/discharge is used for the mapping of reactant conversion. This quantity is not hampered by lateral flow of current and can be conveniently transformed to the corresponding state of charge. The difference between theoretically calculated and experimentally determined conversion (change in the state of charge) across the electrode is used to determine local variations in conversion efficiency. The method is validated by systematic experiments using electrodes with different modifications, varying current densities and flow configurations. The procedure and the interpretation are simple and scalable to any size of flow cell. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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Review

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36 pages, 7869 KiB  
Review
In-Situ Tools Used in Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Research—Review
by Purna C. Ghimire, Arjun Bhattarai, Tuti M. Lim, Nyunt Wai, Maria Skyllas-Kazacos and Qingyu Yan
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030053 - 4 Aug 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 10800
Abstract
Progress in renewable energy production has directed interest in advanced developments of energy storage systems. The all-vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is one of the attractive technologies for large scale energy storage due to its design versatility and scalability, longevity, good round-trip efficiencies, [...] Read more.
Progress in renewable energy production has directed interest in advanced developments of energy storage systems. The all-vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is one of the attractive technologies for large scale energy storage due to its design versatility and scalability, longevity, good round-trip efficiencies, stable capacity and safety. Despite these advantages, the deployment of the vanadium battery has been limited due to vanadium and cell material costs, as well as supply issues. Improving stack power density can lower the cost per kW power output and therefore, intensive research and development is currently ongoing to improve cell performance by increasing electrode activity, reducing cell resistance, improving membrane selectivity and ionic conductivity, etc. In order to evaluate the cell performance arising from this intensive R&D, numerous physical, electrochemical and chemical techniques are employed, which are mostly carried out ex situ, particularly on cell characterizations. However, this approach is unable to provide in-depth insights into the changes within the cell during operation. Therefore, in situ diagnostic tools have been developed to acquire information relating to the design, operating parameters and cell materials during VRFB operation. This paper reviews in situ diagnostic tools used to realize an in-depth insight into the VRFBs. A systematic review of the previous research in the field is presented with the advantages and limitations of each technique being discussed, along with the recommendations to guide researchers to identify the most appropriate technique for specific investigations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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