Buildings

26 pages, 2818 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field Testing and Calibration of Building Hermetic Doors Under Extreme Bipolar Pressure Scenarios

by Weitao Luo, Shudi Wang, Dan Zhao, Haoyang Li, Yuqing Lin, Jiangnan Wang and Chenyi Ye

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2754; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142754 - 10 Jul 2026

Hermetic doors with high sealing performance are critically important for safety critical buildings, such as hospital operating rooms, biological laboratories, and underground shelters. Nevertheless, field-measured leakage data for such doors under extreme pressure conditions remain extremely scarce, and the underlying leakage characteristics remain [...] Read more.

Hermetic doors with high sealing performance are critically important for safety critical buildings, such as hospital operating rooms, biological laboratories, and underground shelters. Nevertheless, field-measured leakage data for such doors under extreme pressure conditions remain extremely scarce, and the underlying leakage characteristics remain largely unclear. In this study, the leakage rates of two sizes (1.2 m × 2.3 m and 4.8 m × 4.45 m) of hermetic doors were measured in a model structure using the fan pressurization method under extreme bipolar pressure (±1500 Pa) with stepwise loading. A correlation curve between the pressure differential and the leakage rate was subsequently established and adopted as a boundary condition in Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models, and CFD simulations revealed that this curve conveniently calibrates the performance of high-airtightness doors in entire buildings. The results show that this equivalent boundary condition method effectively enhances the efficiency and accuracy of numerical simulations for complex structures, thereby providing a theoretical basis for future building designs requiring high airtightness and facilitating the calibration of leakage characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

26 pages, 2895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Passive House Design in a Hot–Arid Climate—Adoption Assessment and Energy Performance Simulation: Case of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

by Hassan Alnashri, Abdulrahman Fnais and Abdulrahman Bin Mahmoud

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142753 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Energy consumption in hot–arid and warm climates is driven by cooling demand during long, intense summers. In these contexts, the residential sector accounts for much of national electricity use, and cooling can exceed 70% of annual household consumption. Saudi Arabia exemplifies this pattern, [...] Read more.

Energy consumption in hot–arid and warm climates is driven by cooling demand during long, intense summers. In these contexts, the residential sector accounts for much of national electricity use, and cooling can exceed 70% of annual household consumption. Saudi Arabia exemplifies this pattern, with the residential sector consuming over half of the national electricity and cooling dominating demand in hot–arid cities like Riyadh. Against this background, this study explores the adaptation of the Passive House approach—originally developed in cold and temperate regions—for a cooling-dominated, hot–arid context. A detached villa in Riyadh was selected as a case study, and its energy performance was modeled in DesignBuilder using a baseline calibrated against 12 months of electricity bills. Passive House measures were then tested. The results showed that insulating walls and roofs provided the largest reductions in electricity use, at 21% and 15%, respectively, while high-performance glazing with external shading achieved an additional 3.4%. Improvements in airtightness and ventilation with heat recovery yielded only minor savings in a cooling-dominated climate. When all measures were implemented together, the villa’s annual electricity consumption was reduced by 48% compared with the baseline, and cooling demand was reduced by 72.3%. These findings demonstrate that Passive House measures can be effectively adapted to hot–arid conditions, with envelope insulation and solar-gain control delivering the most significant benefits. The Riyadh case underscores the potential of Passive House principles to reduce residential electricity use in cooling-dominated housing and to support energy-efficient design in hot–arid and warm-climate regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Building Energy Efficiency Through Better Design, Engineering and Management)

26 pages, 1074 KB

Open AccessArticle

Configuration-Sensitive Decomposition of the Response Modification Factor in Reinforced Concrete Moment Frames

by Betzabeth Suquillo, Stefanía Villavicencio, Christian D. Medina and Brian Cagua

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2752; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142752 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

The response modification factor R is a fundamental parameter in seismic design, linking the elastic demand expected under strong ground motion to the reduced forces used in practice. It reflects the capacity of well-detailed structures to dissipate energy through stable inelastic behavior while [...] Read more.

The response modification factor R is a fundamental parameter in seismic design, linking the elastic demand expected under strong ground motion to the reduced forces used in practice. It reflects the capacity of well-detailed structures to dissipate energy through stable inelastic behavior while maintaining sufficient strength, stiffness, and deformation capacity to prevent collapse. Accordingly, R directly influences design base shear, member forces, reinforcement demands and expected seismic performance. It is prescribed by seismic codes as a single typology dependent value, although analytical evidence indicates that its magnitude varies systematically with structural configuration. Therefore, this study decomposes R for twelve reinforced concrete moment-resisting frame archetypes that combine three heights (4, 8, and 14 stories) with four span configurations (1–4 spans) over a constant 12 m plan length. All frames are designed per ACI 318-19 and ASCE/SEI 7-22 for the Pedernales, Ecuador, subduction-zone seismic hazard. The response modification factor R is evaluated through a component-based decomposition that separates the effects of ductility, overstrength, and redundancy—namely the capacity ductility

μ_{c}

, the demand ductility

μ_{d}

, the overstrength

Ω

, and a geometric redundancy index

ρ_{g}

, using bilinearized pushover analyses. Dynamic verification, used here as a consistency check, is explicitly restricted to the low-rise class (four-story frames) through nonlinear response-history analysis under eleven spectrum-matched ground-motion records; results for the 8- and 14-story frames are therefore pushover-based only. To bracket the inelastic reduction capacity, a demand-based companion factor

R^{*}

is reported and defined as the demand-based counterpart of R, providing a capacity-oriented estimate R and a demand-oriented companion estimate

R^{*}

. R ranges from 3.80 to 14.56, whereas

R^{*}

ranges from 1.82 to 7.63. The component ranges are the capacity ductility

μ_{c} = 6.04

–

11.50

, the demand ductility

μ_{d} = 3.04

–

5.98

, the overstrength

Ω = 1.19

–

1.38

, and the geometric redundancy index

ρ_{g} = 0.485

–

1.000

. Capacity ductility saturates in taller frames (about

\sim 12 %

variation). In addition,

Ω

and

ρ_{g}

exhibit a mechanical trade-off that challenges the independence assumption implicit in the multiplicative decomposition. Dynamic results corroborate the pushover-implied demand only for the low-rise class; no extrapolation to taller frames is claimed. Overall, the findings motivate configuration-sensitive analytical calibration as a prerequisite for any future normative discussion on R. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

29 pages, 11187 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Polymer-Modified Cementitious Materials for Underwater Repair: Workability, Bonding, Mechanical Performance and Durability

by Shuaikang Jing, Bo Pang, Yidong Chen, Jianling Wang, Penggang Wang, Shanglin Song and Wensen Lai

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2751; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142751 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Underwater concrete infrastructure is gradually damaged by water scouring, chloride ingress, freeze–thaw cycles, and fatigue loading, so reliable in situ repair materials are increasingly needed. Conventional cement-based repair materials are often unsuitable for underwater use because they disperse in water, bond weakly to [...] Read more.

Underwater concrete infrastructure is gradually damaged by water scouring, chloride ingress, freeze–thaw cycles, and fatigue loading, so reliable in situ repair materials are increasingly needed. Conventional cement-based repair materials are often unsuitable for underwater use because they disperse in water, bond weakly to wet substrates, and show limited durability. Polymer-modified cementitious materials can reduce these problems by combining cement compatibility with polymer film formation and interfacial strengthening. Water-soluble polymers mainly improve fresh-state cohesion and anti-washout performance through adsorption, bridging, and flocculation regulation. In comparison, polymer emulsions and latexes are more effective after hardening, improving bonding, crack resistance, and durability through polymer films and organic–inorganic networks. For self-leveling underwater repair, the flow spread should reach at least 130 mm. For vertical repair with a 20 mm layer, a yield stress of about 360 Pa is needed to prevent sagging. Therefore, performance should not be judged by strength alone, but by constructability, interfacial water films, and pore connectivity. Future studies should consider responsive polymers, multi-component modification, standardized tests, and low-carbon binders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Approaches to Building Repair—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 5705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explicit Modeling of Compressive Strength in Manufactured Sand Concrete Based on Integrated Machine Learning Approaches

by Juanjuan Quan, Kunlin Liu, Hao Su, Shaojun Fu, Kaifeng Zhang, Peiyu Wang and Yufei Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142750 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

To address the limitations of traditional BP neural networks in predicting manufactured sand concrete strength, specifically their susceptibility to local optima and “black-box” opacity, this study developed an integrated framework combining improved optimization algorithms with the Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) method. Using a [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of traditional BP neural networks in predicting manufactured sand concrete strength, specifically their susceptibility to local optima and “black-box” opacity, this study developed an integrated framework combining improved optimization algorithms with the Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) method. Using a dataset of 375 data points, genetic algorithm-back propagation (GA-BP) and GOOSE-BP prediction models were developed, with AutoFeat employed for explicit model construction based on a SHAP feature analysis. The results demonstrate that the GOOSE-BP model significantly outperformed traditional methods, achieving an R² of 0.916 and reducing prediction errors by 47.5%. The SHAP analysis identified paste thickness and stone powder content as the primary determinants of strength. Key thresholds were established, including a water-to-binder ratio sensitivity range of 0.35–0.50, an optimal stone powder content of 80–110 kg/m³, and a recommended sand ratio of 0.38–0.45. By converting complex nonlinear mappings into interpretable explicit expressions, this study provides a robust scientific basis and a practical computational tool for predicting concrete strength, facilitating the deep integration of machine learning with civil engineering practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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30 pages, 21386 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Application of Parametric Geometry in the Morphology of Qing Dynasty Multi-Storey Pavilion-Style Pagoda in Northeast Sichuan

by Guohong Qiu and Bin Cheng

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142749 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Fengshui pagodas are one of the predominant types of ancient Chinese pagodas, possessing architectural, cultural, educational, and folkloric research value; their form serves as a central vehicle for the study of cultural relics and architectural styles. Currently, academic research relies solely on architectural [...] Read more.

Fengshui pagodas are one of the predominant types of ancient Chinese pagodas, possessing architectural, cultural, educational, and folkloric research value; their form serves as a central vehicle for the study of cultural relics and architectural styles. Currently, academic research relies solely on architectural proportions to deduce structural components, and there is a lack of research into the implicit mathematical logic underlying the pagoda’s structure; both research methods and mathematical analysis have shortcomings. This study abstracts the standard geometric forms of the Pagoda body, constructs a system of mathematical equations using parametric geometry, and verifies the effectiveness of this method through cross-validation experiments on samples. All data sources consist of precise, field-surveyed architectural measurements. The results indicate that the parametric geometry method is suitable for the quantitative study of feng shui pagodas in northeastern Sichuan, offering greater precision than traditional methods and clarifying the mathematical relationships underlying their architectural forms. This study innovates the mathematical modeling of ancient pagoda forms, breaking through traditional approaches to feng shui pagoda research, and provides a scientific framework for tracing the origins of Qing Dynasty pavilion-style feng shui pagodas and for mathematical research on similar ancient structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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36 pages, 8753 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Analytical Model of the Force Distribution Characteristics on an h-Shaped Combined Circular Pile Under the Sliding Force of Landslide

by Jibo Wang, Guangjin Wang, Jing Li and Baolong Zhu

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2748; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142748 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

In landslide treatment, h-shaped combined circular piles are widely used, and the bending deformation of the piles under the action of sliding force has been deeply studied. However, most previous studies have not considered the difference in the force distribution on the front [...] Read more.

In landslide treatment, h-shaped combined circular piles are widely used, and the bending deformation of the piles under the action of sliding force has been deeply studied. However, most previous studies have not considered the difference in the force distribution on the front and rear sides of the pile body. This study established a modified analysis model that takes this difference into account, and through model tests, we calculated and verified the force distribution characteristics of single-row circular piles and h-shaped combined circular piles under various sliding forces. The results show that the proposed modified model can accurately predict the force distribution characteristics on the pile bodies of single-row circular piles and h-shaped combined circular piles, and the calculated values are more consistent with the model test data compared to the results of existing theoretical models. The overall structure of the h-shaped combined circular piles leads to more reasonable force distribution on the pile body than that of the single-row circular piles, resulting in reductions of approximately 20% in soil pressure, 10% in the bending moment of the pile body, and 20% in the pile top displacement. Therefore, the h-shaped combined circular piles are more effective in resisting sliding forces in the model tunnels and provide better protection. Under the same load, the bending moment, soil pressure, and final displacement of the model tunnels of h-shaped combined piles are significantly smaller than those of single-row circular piles. In summary, the proposed modified model provides a reference basis for the internal force verification in the design of h-shaped combined circular piles in actual engineering projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

24 pages, 19953 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Improved Design Aspects of Learning Space from Students’ and Designers’ Perspectives in China

by Rongrong Sun, Muhammad Firzan Bin Abdul Aziz and Yan Jia

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2747; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142747 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Learning space design has become an increasingly important consideration in educational buildings; however, existing studies have predominantly focused on the perceptions and comfort of students, teachers, and administrators, while limited attention has been given to the roles and professional perspectives of interior designers [...] Read more.

Learning space design has become an increasingly important consideration in educational buildings; however, existing studies have predominantly focused on the perceptions and comfort of students, teachers, and administrators, while limited attention has been given to the roles and professional perspectives of interior designers and architects, who are directly responsible for translating government design standards into built classroom environments. Hence, this study investigates the students’ dissatisfaction with current learning space and interior design strategies for primary school classrooms in China from the perspective of professional interior designers. Card sorting techniques and group interviews were conducted with 72 students. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seventeen experienced designers involved in school design and renovation projects, and the data were analysed using thematic analysis supported by NVivo 14 plus software. The findings identify that four key design dimensions influence the designers’ decision-making. These include improved indoor environmental quality (IIEQ), flexible spatial design (FSD), appropriate decoration (AD), and institutional support (IS), which all influence the environmental performance and functional adaptability of classroom. This study developed the affordance theory and the SIN model to improve the current learning space. These dimensions highlight the role of interior design strategies in addressing issues related to thermal comfort, daylight control, ventilation, spatial flexibility, visual comfort, and implementation conditions within school buildings. The study proposes a set of design recommendations and practical interior strategies for primary school classrooms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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47 pages, 13878 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Influencing Factors of Eventfulness in Built-Environment Soundscapes: A Systematic Review with Grounded Theory Analysis

by Dizi Wu, Shiyao Song, Sixing Liu, Yu Yi and Shihai Wu

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2746; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142746 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Eventfulness is a core dimension of soundscape perception, reflecting cues of activity, social interaction, and dynamic change in the built environment. Although previous studies have examined variables related to eventfulness, evidence remains fragmented across contexts, terminology, and analytical levels, limiting its use in [...] Read more.

Eventfulness is a core dimension of soundscape perception, reflecting cues of activity, social interaction, and dynamic change in the built environment. Although previous studies have examined variables related to eventfulness, evidence remains fragmented across contexts, terminology, and analytical levels, limiting its use in soundscape evaluation and design. This study aims to synthesize and structure the influencing factors of eventfulness perception in built-environment soundscapes. A systematic review was conducted using Web of Science and Scopus, and 79 relevant studies were selected following the PRISMA procedure. Variables, terms, and findings related to eventfulness were extracted and analyzed through grounded theory coding. The results indicate that eventfulness perception is shaped by four core categories: context, sound sources, acoustic environment, and auditory sensation. Over time, research has shifted from sound-related factors toward a broader contextualized understanding, with sound sources remaining the most recurrent explanatory basis and contextual factors expanding markedly but remaining dispersed in evidence. Although variation in contextual definitions, terminology, and measurement protocols limits direct cross-study comparison, the proposed four-category framework provides a coherent structure for organizing existing evidence and highlights the need for more systematic empirical research across diverse built-environment settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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25 pages, 1398 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Machine Learning in Architectural Heritage Conservation: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions

by Kaiming Li, Baitong Du, Dailuo Li, Zhenxiang Liu, Xiaotong Zhang and HaeYoon Kim

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142745 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Machine learning (ML) is increasingly used in architectural cultural heritage conservation, but existing evidence remains fragmented across tasks, data types, and technical workflows. This systematic review synthesizes 33 studies on machine learning applications in architectural heritage conservation and identifies major application domains, methodological [...] Read more.

Machine learning (ML) is increasingly used in architectural cultural heritage conservation, but existing evidence remains fragmented across tasks, data types, and technical workflows. This systematic review synthesizes 33 studies on machine learning applications in architectural heritage conservation and identifies major application domains, methodological patterns, evidence gaps, and future research directions. Following a PRISMA-oriented review process, the literature was searched in Web of Science, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar up to 31 January 2026. Eligible studies were screened according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, extracted using a structured coding form, and synthesized through qualitative thematic analysis. The included studies were grouped into three major domains: semantic understanding of heritage data, multi-scale damage detection and structural health monitoring, and system-level integration through heritage building information models (HBIM), multimodal data fusion, and digital twins. The evidence indicates a transition from isolated data-driven analysis toward predictive and decision-support systems, while persistent limitations remain in model generalization, benchmark datasets, semantic-to-HBIM transformation, multimodal fusion, and real-world deployment. Machine learning has substantial potential to support preventive, interpretable, and context-aware conservation, but future research requires more transparent reporting, shared datasets, external validation, and closer integration with conservation expertise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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26 pages, 549 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Pythagorean Fuzzy TOPSIS Framework for Occupational Safety Risk Prioritization in Bridge Construction Projects

by Ziquan Xiang, Muhammad Hamza Naseem, Xiuqian Pan and Hafiz Muddassir Majeed Butt

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2744; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142744 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

With the continuous expansion of government investment in transportation infrastructure, transportation investment has increased, and bridge engineering has flourished. However, safety accidents frequently occur during the construction stage, so the safety situation of bridge construction units remains unfavorable. Bridge construction is a high-risk [...] Read more.

With the continuous expansion of government investment in transportation infrastructure, transportation investment has increased, and bridge engineering has flourished. However, safety accidents frequently occur during the construction stage, so the safety situation of bridge construction units remains unfavorable. Bridge construction is a high-risk occupational activity because operations are performed under complex site conditions, variable geological and hydrological environments, long construction periods, and frequent interaction among workers, machinery, materials, technologies, and surrounding environments. Existing bridge construction safety assessment methods have improved hazard identification and risk prioritization; however, many still have difficulty representing uncertainty, hesitation, and subjective judgment in expert-based occupational safety evaluation. To address this problem, this study proposes an integrated Pythagorean fuzzy TOPSIS decision-support framework for occupational safety risk prioritization in bridge construction projects. A safety risk indicator system is established from five dimensions: human, management, material, technical, and environmental factors. Expert judgments are expressed using linguistic variables and converted into Pythagorean fuzzy numbers. The Pythagorean fuzzy weighted average operator is used to aggregate multi-expert evaluation information, and criterion importance is determined from expert-based Pythagorean fuzzy assessments. The model is applied to a bridge reconstruction project, followed by sensitivity analysis and comparison with several existing methods. The results indicate that low work quality, non-standard construction, construction site environment, lack of safety awareness, and insufficient construction technology are the most critical occupational safety risk indicators. The proposed method provides a practical decision-support tool for identifying priority safety risks under fuzzy and uncertain evaluation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Approaches to Occupational Safety in Construction: Managing Risks, Hazards, and Training for Safer Building Environments)

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39 pages, 12777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Building Performance Simulation and Climate-Adaptive Green Retrofit of Jingzu Jiashu, a Historic Chaoshan Residence in Lingnan Under Hot–Humid and Disaster-Prone Weather Conditions

by Tukun Wang, Jingyang Li, Zhikang Huang and Xi Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142743 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Historic residential buildings in Lingnan are affected by hot–humid and disaster-prone weather conditions, including high temperature, high humidity, intense solar radiation, monsoon winds, and typhoon-related climate stress, which challenge indoor thermal comfort, daylighting, natural ventilation, and adaptive reuse. Taking Jingzu Jiashu, a historic [...] Read more.

Historic residential buildings in Lingnan are affected by hot–humid and disaster-prone weather conditions, including high temperature, high humidity, intense solar radiation, monsoon winds, and typhoon-related climate stress, which challenge indoor thermal comfort, daylighting, natural ventilation, and adaptive reuse. Taking Jingzu Jiashu, a historic Chaoshan residence associated with overseas remittance culture, as a case study, this study develops a simulation workflow for climate-adaptive green retrofit. Digital documentation, architectural survey, material investigation, and climate data were integrated to establish a baseline model. PMV, DA300, and ACH/ACR were used to evaluate thermal comfort, daylighting, and natural ventilation. The baseline results show summer overheating, insufficient daylighting in deep rooms, and inadequate ventilation in representative rooms. Comfortable hours accounted for only 7.29–7.78%, thermally uncomfortable hours reached 42.84–51.53%, and the maximum PMV reached 4.65 in the rear hall and 3.54–3.65 in representative rooms. The effective daylight areas of the front and rear rooms were approximately 40% and 31%, while baseline ACH values ranged from 1.06 to 1.89 h⁻¹. An integrated retrofit strategy was proposed, including functional reorganization, envelope optimization, opening adjustment, ventilation-path organization, and courtyard/transitional-space improvement. After retrofit, comfortable hours increased to 32.00–42.45%, thermally uncomfortable hours decreased to 17.25–21.28%, maximum PMV values decreased to 1.82–1.86, daylight areas increased to 81% and 74%, and ACH values rose to 2.97–4.49 h⁻¹. The results indicate that building performance simulation can provide quantitative support for climate-adaptive green retrofit of historic Chaoshan residences in Lingnan, offering a methodological reference for healthier, lower-carbon, and more resilient reuse of similar historic dwellings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Building Design and Human Settlement Optimization in Urban Built Environment)

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28 pages, 2026 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Circular Economy Framework for Minimizing Construction Waste During the Construction Phase of Residential Projects in Jordan

by Alma’moon Nahar Altawalba and Farid E. Mohamed Ghazali

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2742; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142742 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

The construction industry in Jordan faces significant economic and environmental challenges due to high material costs, fluctuating market prices, and the continued reliance on a linear economy model that prioritizes material extraction, consumption, and disposal over reuse and recycling. These challenges contribute to [...] Read more.

The construction industry in Jordan faces significant economic and environmental challenges due to high material costs, fluctuating market prices, and the continued reliance on a linear economy model that prioritizes material extraction, consumption, and disposal over reuse and recycling. These challenges contribute to substantial construction waste generation and hinder the transition toward a Circular Economy (CE). Therefore, this study aimed to develop a framework for managing construction waste during the construction phase of residential building projects in Jordan and to facilitate the adoption of circular practices within the construction sector. A questionnaire survey was administered to 31 experts, and the collected data were analyzed using the Relative Importance Index (RII) and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Subsequently, the proposed framework was evaluated through a three-round Delphi study involving an independent panel of experts. The results identified the principal barriers to implementation as the low demand for reused or recycled materials, limited stakeholder awareness, and difficulties in material disassembly. The findings further revealed that applying visual management and 5S techniques to improve site efficiency, implementing Building Information Modeling (BIM) for material and component mapping throughout the building life cycle, and providing tax incentives and grants for recycled materials were among the highest-ranked sub-strategies for supporting circular practices and minimizing construction waste. The Delphi evaluation demonstrated strong expert consensus regarding the framework’s applicability and practicality, indicating that it provides a structured, expert-informed approach that may assist policymakers and construction practitioners in promoting circular practices and reducing construction waste in Jordan. In addition, the framework has the potential to support Jordan’s Vision 2025 and contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Deconstruction and the Sustainable Management of Construction Waste: Towards a Circular Economy)

29 pages, 42791 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliable Recognition and Hard-Boundary Evaluation for Archiving Images of Huizhou Architectural Heritage

by Wenqi Qiao and Jingjing He

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2741; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142741 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Huizhou architectural heritage images are important visual materials for regional heritage documentation, digital archiving, and conservation support. However, Huizhou architecture shares many visual cues with Jiangnan white-walled and grey-tiled buildings and other visually similar Classical Chinese architectural forms. In practical image archiving, the [...] Read more.

Huizhou architectural heritage images are important visual materials for regional heritage documentation, digital archiving, and conservation support. However, Huizhou architecture shares many visual cues with Jiangnan white-walled and grey-tiled buildings and other visually similar Classical Chinese architectural forms. In practical image archiving, the critical risk is therefore not only whether a model can achieve high four-class accuracy, but also whether visually similar Classical Chinese buildings are incorrectly archived as Huizhou architecture. To address this problem, this study constructs the HuizhouStyle-4C image recognition task and proposes a reliability-oriented evaluation workflow for Huizhou architectural heritage image archiving. The workflow combines group-aware leakage control, hard-boundary diagnosis, and an out-of-fold (OOF)-safe fixed decision rule. A structure-aware baseline classifier, SAB-ResNet, is further used to incorporate architectural boundary and facade-structure cues into the recognition process. The evaluation includes group-aware five-fold cross-validation, an independent holdout subset from the curated dataset, and a hard-boundary test focused on the distinction between Huizhou architecture and visually similar Classical Chinese samples. Under this within-dataset held-out evaluation setting, the OOF-safe balanced point achieved an Independent Holdout Macro-F1 of 0.9501 and a Hard Binary F1 of 0.8182. The results indicate that Huizhou architectural heritage image archiving benefits from not only conventional four-class recognition, but also explicit diagnosis of near-neighbour misclassification risks and fixed decision rules selected without test-set labels. Additional stronger backbone comparisons further show that competitive held-out four-class performance does not eliminate the need for hard-boundary diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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33 pages, 1141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction Risk Measurement and Driving Mechanisms in Old Residential Community Renovation Projects: A Combined Correlation–SEM Approach

by Jie Yang, Jinfan Zhang and Lingchuan Song

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142740 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Old residential community renovation projects face intense socio-technical risks driven by complex construction environments, diverse stakeholders, and management frictions. To optimize risk governance, this study develops a systematic risk measurement framework by integrating correlation coefficient analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM). Based on [...] Read more.

Old residential community renovation projects face intense socio-technical risks driven by complex construction environments, diverse stakeholders, and management frictions. To optimize risk governance, this study develops a systematic risk measurement framework by integrating correlation coefficient analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM). Based on multi-source empirical data, five critical risk dimensions are identified: personnel, materials and equipment, technology, management, and environment. Following indicator screening via correlation metrics, an SEM path analysis is performed using risk probability, consequence severity, control difficulty, and exposure degree as endogenous variables. The results demonstrate that the model achieves robust statistical goodness-of-fit, effectively uncovering a tripartite driving mechanism encompassing risk triggering, amplification, and constraint across varying dimensions. This study delivers a replicable quantitative tool and an actionable decision-making basis for the refined safety management and sustainable implementation of complex urban renewal projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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21 pages, 14458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Strengthening Comparison of Carbonated Stabilized Soils Under Different Organic Matters

by Guang-Hua Cai, Zi-Ming Zhou, Zhao-Yuan Guo, Yun Zhuang, Jia-Yu Huang, Chao Yan, Yi-Qie Dong and Hai-Jun Lu

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2739; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142739 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Organic matter critically restricts the effectiveness of conventional cement stabilization of soft soils and undermines the performance of reinforced soil layers. However, how different organic matter components affect reactive MgO carbonation reinforcement remains poorly understood. This study adopted Portland cement (PC) stabilization, MgO [...] Read more.

Organic matter critically restricts the effectiveness of conventional cement stabilization of soft soils and undermines the performance of reinforced soil layers. However, how different organic matter components affect reactive MgO carbonation reinforcement remains poorly understood. This study adopted Portland cement (PC) stabilization, MgO stabilization and MgO carbonation to treat silty clay with 0~8% fulvic acid (FA) and humic acid (HA). The engineering performance and microstructural features of stabilized soils were investigated via dry density, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and pH tests, combined with X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and pore structure analysis. The results show that MgO carbonation achieved the optimal densification effect, delivering distinctly higher dry density and UCS than the other two methods. Increased organic matter content reduced soil alkalinity and hindered strength development, with FA exerting a stronger inhibitory impact than HA due to lower UCS and higher dosage sensitivity. Carbonation effectively mitigated the adverse effects of FA and HA and yielded superior soil strength. XRD identified nesquehonite, dypingite and hydromagnesite as dominant carbonation products; organic matter reduced the formation of these strength-enhancing phases and retained uncarbonated brucite. SEM further verified that organic matter modified carbonate morphology and distribution, forming loose microstructures despite reduced pore volume. Overall, reactive MgO carbonation presents stronger anti-interference capability against organic matter than conventional PC stabilization. It improves the performance of organic-rich soft soils and realizes CO₂ sequestration. This study provides experimental support and practical insights for the engineering application of low-carbon MgO-CO₂ soil stabilization technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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15 pages, 4863 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Discrete Element Study on the Bearing Behavior of Fully Penetrating Geosynthetic-Encased Stone Columns

by Feng Liu, Jiancai Zhu, Haibo Hu, Shile Zhou, Xinyu Xie and Panpan Guo

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2738; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142738 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Geosynthetic-encased stone columns (GESCs) utilize geosynthetics to form a geosynthetic sleeve over a certain length of the stone column, thereby increasing lateral confinement and extending the engineering applications of conventional stone columns in ground improvement. In this paper, a series of laboratory model [...] Read more.

Geosynthetic-encased stone columns (GESCs) utilize geosynthetics to form a geosynthetic sleeve over a certain length of the stone column, thereby increasing lateral confinement and extending the engineering applications of conventional stone columns in ground improvement. In this paper, a series of laboratory model tests and discrete element numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the bearing behavior, load transfer mechanism, and deformation patterns of fully penetrating GESCs. The lateral confinement provided by the geogrid can increase the bearing capacity of fully penetrating GESCs, and the bearing capacity increases with increasing reinforcement depth. Compared with the ordinary stone column, the fully penetrating GESC with full-length encasement exhibits an approximately 1.5-fold increase in bearing capacity. The geogrid effectively restricts the movement of gravel particles; within the reinforced zone, the column deformation is relatively uniform, and bulging deformation occurs in the unreinforced section. Reinforced zone leads to a 10% decrease in the bulging ratio compared with the unreinforced section. The longer the encasement length, the more effectively the column transfers the upper load downward. When the reinforcement depth exceeds 75% of the column length, the improvement in bearing capacity of the fully penetrating GESC becomes less pronounced. Considering the encasement efficiency and engineering economy, it is recommended that the encasement length be 75% of the column length. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of New Technologies or Building Materials in Civil Engineering)

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23 pages, 890 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Laboratory Effect in 3D Concrete Printing: A Meta-Analysis, Cross-Study Reliability Assessment, and Minimum Reporting Set

by Salih Özdemir and Sema Alaçam

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2737; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142737 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Process dependence is a defining feature of 3D concrete printing (3DCP), and any pooled inference across laboratories must quantify rather than ignore the laboratory effect. We assembled a harmonized corpus of 80 primary 3DCP studies (465 experiments and 1083 hardened mechanical observations) under [...] Read more.

Process dependence is a defining feature of 3D concrete printing (3DCP), and any pooled inference across laboratories must quantify rather than ignore the laboratory effect. We assembled a harmonized corpus of 80 primary 3DCP studies (465 experiments and 1083 hardened mechanical observations) under PRISMA-style screening, applied controlled vocabularies and unit canonicalization, and estimated the share of variance attributable to the study cluster. The intraclass correlation coefficient is 0.77 (95% CI [0.59, 0.86]; 345 records and 40 studies), so more than three quarters of the dispersion in 28-day compressive strength lies between laboratories rather than between mixtures within the same laboratory. A 7-to-28-day calibration evaluated under leave-one-study-out (LOSO) cross-validation produces

R^{2} = 0.625

, MAE

= 8.67

MPa and RMSE

= 11.38

MPa, with 95% prediction intervals covering 96.9% of held-out observations; the band is wide enough (≈85 MPa at the median) that the calibration is suitable for early-screening of mixture and process candidates rather than for code-compatible structural verification. Most of this between-study scatter traces back to processing variables, curing regimes and loading directions that are inconsistently reported. We propose a three-tier Minimum Reporting Set (MSRS) and demonstrate, through a retrospective audit of the included corpus, that adoption is feasible at the entry tier (63% already comply) while higher tiers identify the metadata that must be added before pooled inference can support structural-design decisions for printed elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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21 pages, 5871 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal-Preference Profiles Reveal Individual Differences in Residential Outdoor Thermal Comfort Under a Hot-Humid Climate: A Case Study for Age-Friendly Architectural Design Using Explainable Machine Learning

by Feng Du, Hui Liu, Yang Bai and Wannian Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142736 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Individual differences in outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) are critical to the healthy use of urban public spaces, yet whether thermal preference can shape OTC independently of demographic characteristics remains largely unexamined. Using residential outdoor spaces in Fuzhou, a representative hot-humid city in China, [...] Read more.

Individual differences in outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) are critical to the healthy use of urban public spaces, yet whether thermal preference can shape OTC independently of demographic characteristics remains largely unexamined. Using residential outdoor spaces in Fuzhou, a representative hot-humid city in China, as a case, this study combines field measurements and questionnaire data from 296 respondents (72.6% aged 60 or above) with explainable machine learning and K-Modes clustering to examine how thermal preference drives individual differences in OTC. Three stable preference profiles were identified—heat-sensitive (56.4%), wind-seeking (20.3%), and heat-tolerant (23.3%)—which exhibit markedly different thermal responses. The neutral globe temperature ranges from 29.90 °C for the heat-sensitive profile to 35.85 °C for the heat-tolerant profile, a difference of 5.95 °C, whereas the comfort bandwidth is widest for the heat-sensitive profile (9.03 °C) and narrowest for the heat-tolerant profile (4.13 °C), the former being 2.2 times the latter. The profiles are independent of sex and BMI and only weakly correlated with age, yet their explanatory power for the variance in thermal comfort vote (TCV) (η² = 0.254) is 4.9 to 23.1 times that of the demographic variables. The thermal environment contributes far more to TCV than the visual environment (74.4% versus 25.6%), with globe temperature (Tg) as the strongest single factor. Overall, differentiated design that adopts the most heat-sensitive profile as the constraint boundary covers the comfort needs of a broad population more effectively than demographic stratification. The novelty of this study lies in introducing psychologically grounded thermal-preference profiles as an operational stratification dimension for architectural design, offering age-friendly hot-humid residential environments a preference-oriented pathway toward refined, human-centered outdoor space design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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