Heritage

This study examines three Byzantine-period amphora carriers (Knidos F, L, and N) discovered off the coast of Knidos within the context of Eastern Mediterranean maritime trade. The research is based on deep-water surveys conducted by ROVs from the E/V Nautilus, combined with seabed mapping and typological analysis of amphora assemblages. The Knidos F and L wrecks carried predominantly Günsenin Type I amphorae and date to the 10th–12th centuries, reflecting the revival of Byzantine maritime commerce. Knidos N represents a later, likely 13th-century context with a distinct amphora assemblage. Together, these wrecks highlight the continued commercial significance of the Carian maritime corridor in Byzantine shipping networks. Full article

This systematic review examines how Extended Reality (XR) technologies, i.e., Virtual (VR), Augmented (AR), Mixed (MR), and Spatial Augmented Reality (SAR) are designed, implemented, and evaluated in cultural heritage (CH) applications, addressing five research questions: (RQ1) How were XR technologies applied in CH between 2021 and 2025? (RQ2) What interaction paradigms are used, and how do they shape engagement and meaning making? (RQ3) What user experience outcomes are reported in XR CH applications? (RQ4) What evaluation methods are employed and what methodological gaps remain? (RQ5) What challenges persist across XR heritage implementations? Peer-reviewed, English-language studies reporting on implemented XR systems in CH contexts with empirical or evaluative data were included; conceptual articles without a described implementation, non-English publications, and studies published before January 2020 were excluded. Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, and the ACM Digital Library were searched for publications dated January 2020 through March 2025, complemented by manual proceedings screening (SIGGRAPH, CHI, IMX, VRCAI) and backward/forward citation tracking. All databases were last searched in March 2025. Two independent researchers screened all records and extracted data; disagreements were resolved through structured discussion. Bias toward positive novelty outcomes was mitigated by including conference proceedings alongside journal articles to broaden the evidence base. A qualitative thematic synthesis was employed, as methodological heterogeneity across studies precluded statistical meta-analysis. Findings were organized inductively into four thematic domains through iterative coding and inter-author consensus. From an initial corpus of 359 records, 287 unique records were retained after deduplication; following title/abstract screening and full-text eligibility assessment, 64 studies were included in the final synthesis. The majority (60/64) were published between 2021 and 2025, with study sample sizes ranging from small expert cohorts (n ≈ 6) to large public deployments (n > 125). The thematic analysis across technology, interaction design, user experience, and evaluation reveals trends toward participatory, multiuser, and multimodal XR designs, reporting benefits including immersion, engagement, learning, and accessibility, alongside recurring challenges such as cost, usability, cybersickness, content authenticity, and lack of longitudinal evaluation. Beyond thematic description, using a cross-domain analytical synthesis, we identify the Design Coherence Framework for XR Heritage (DCF-XR); this is a four-dimensional interpretive model spanning technology, interaction design, user experience, and evaluation, which provides an original diagnostic lens for understanding the conditions under which XR effectively serves cultural heritage goals. A typology of four recurring design failure modes, derived inductively from the corpus, demonstrates that the most persistent shortcomings in the field arise not from the weakness of individual dimensions but from their misalignment with one another. Evidence is limited by the predominance of small convenience samples, single-session laboratory evaluations, and the absence of domain-specific standardized assessment instruments for XR in CH, which constrains the generalizability of reported outcomes. Targeted recommendations for rigorous, ethical, and inclusive XR practice in CH are presented, highlighting the need for longitudinal studies, open datasets, and standardized evaluation frameworks. This review received no external funding. This review was not pre-registered in a prospective register. Full article

Subadult stress is an important bioarchaeological indicator of the health status of archaeological populations, and its interpretation requires consideration of biological, environmental, and social factors. This paper examines the impact of cribra orbitalia (CO) and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) on adult mortality in Late Antique Southern Pannonia. A sample of 400 adult individuals from the sites of Mursa (Osijek), Cibalae (Vinkovci), Certissa (Štrbinci), and Incerum (Tekić) was analyzed. The results show that CO has a statistically significant negative impact on age-at-death in both sexes, whereas LEH shows a non-significant to weak impact with a statistically non-significant trend. The cumulative effect of multiple indicators of subadult stress could particularly negatively affect females, which is associated with reproductive burden and socio-cultural factors. The results confirm the complex interaction between environment and humans—the importance of living conditions and health stressors on the health and mortality of individuals and the entire observed population—at the same time in the analyzed sample. Full article

As part of a fundamental and comprehensive monitoring and conservation of the tomb of Emperor Otto the Great in the cathedral of Magdeburg, the question of the provenance of the marble cover slab of the sarcophagus was investigated. Within the restoration activities, two samples of the slab were taken for scientific provenance analyses, one sample of the white marble and another of the irregular grey bands. The following investigations were used for this purpose: analysis of the stable isotopes of O and C, and chemical analysis of a large number of trace elements, resulting in a large number of variables. For the simultaneous evaluation of these numerical results, statistical multivariate analysis was used for comparing the results with our database of approximately 7000 samples from ancient marble quarries and the data being referenced in this investigation are published and listed here. The results obtained clearly identify the quarries of Prokonnesos in the Sea of Marmara as the most probable source of the examined slab. This is in perfect agreement with petrographic analyses carried out on these samples. Full article

Accurate three-dimensional documentation has become an essential tool for the analysis, interpretation, and preservation of archaeological heritage, particularly in the case of large and complex architectural remains. This paper presents a high-resolution three-dimensional documentation and quantitative study of the Great Cistern of Sierra Aznar, a major Roman water-storage structure located in Arcos de la Frontera (Cádiz, southern Spain). A geometrically reliable three-dimensional model was generated through the integration of image-based photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning, ensuring high spatial resolution and complete geometric coverage. The resulting model provided the basis for detailed metric analyses, including planimetric documentation, estimation of maximum storage capacity, and assessment of sediment accumulation within the structure. The results indicate that the cistern had an estimated storage capacity of approximately 2180 m³, while sediment deposits currently occupy nearly 37.5% of its original volume, offering valuable evidence for the long-term evolution and post-depositional history of the monument. In addition, the spatial and altimetric relationships between the cistern, nearby sedimentation basins (piscinae limariae), and an associated fountain are consistent with a coordinated water-management landscape, although direct hydraulic connections are not preserved. The Great Cistern of Sierra Aznar is thus presented as a significant archaeological case study illustrating how rigorous three-dimensional documentation can support quantitative analysis, contextual interpretation, and the long-term preservation of complex hydraulic heritage. Full article

This study presents a Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) characterization of three American Civil War era ammunition: the .56-52 Spencer, .56-56 Spencer, and .50 US carbine centerfire. Analysis revealed the Spencer rimfire cases consist of pure copper, likely to prevent the embrittlement caused by mercury fulminate in the primer, whereas the latter .50 US carbine centrefire case utilizes a brass alloy. The propellant was confirmed to be traditional black powder. Notably, traces of silicon and aluminum detected within the primer and propellant residues were thoroughly investigated. The lack of systematic glass markers suggests these elements originated from impurities or degraded organic binders, rather than intentionally added glass frictionators. Ultimately, this research addresses a gap in the literature regarding the material composition and degradation of mid-19th-century ammunition. Full article

Climate change poses accelerating and intensifying threats to cultural heritage worldwide, necessitating urgent and coordinated state-level responses. This study critically examines China’s governance framework for climate adaptation of cultural heritage, identifying a critical policy misalignment: although relevant legal and governance instruments—spanning cultural heritage protection, environmental governance, disaster risk reduction, territorial spatial planning, and climate action systems—are nominally in place, they remain profoundly fragmented in practice, resulting in operational inefficiency that severely constrains effective adaptation. To address this, the paper argues for a fundamental paradigm shift from static preservation to dynamic adaptation. It proposes a reform pathway centered on three pillars: reconceptualizing heritage from static preservation to dynamic adaptation, institutionalizing cross-departmental cooperation, and integrating systemic adaptation tools into planning and decision-making. The ultimate objective is to establish an adaptive governance system capable of responding flexibly to climate impacts through interdisciplinary coordination. This transformation is framed as a critical strategic imperative, essential for ensuring the long-term resilience of cultural heritage and civilizational continuity in a warming world. Full article

High-resolution, commercially acquired satellite imagery has been shown to be a powerful tool for documentation and analysis of damage to archaeological sites, particularly in conflict zones where ground-based observations are impractical or dangerous. Using this approach, previous investigations have reported widespread looting and other forms of damage to archaeological sites in Syria during the early years of the civil war (2011–2016). Relying on an expanding suite of satellite imagery resources, this paper presents a renewed analysis of looting and archaeological site damage in Syria over the past decade. The results reveal: (1) severe damage to many sites in northern Syria from a novel form of mechanized looting, (2) intensified impacts from the establishment of military facilities or refugee camps on many prominent sites, and (3) rampant incidents of small-scale looting across all areas of the country. These results highlight the importance of ongoing imagery-based heritage monitoring efforts and will support emerging mitigation, stabilization, and damage assessment efforts in Syria going forward. Full article

A relative humidity (RH) of 30–40% was considered optimal for the ‘sick’ glasses of the Veste Coburg Art Collections to prevent further corrosion at higher humidity values and crizzling on drying of the gel layer at lower levels. This has been achieved since 1993 by using saturated solutions of magnesium chloride in display cases, providing a constant humidity of 33%. These solutions also absorb volatile harmful ‘carbonyl’ and other pollutants. A visual survey of the glasses and recent ion chromatographic measurements of alkalis on their surfaces confirmed their stable condition after three decades: no crystals, no new haze, no tears, no fragmentation, and no further growth of crizzling. Full article

Ceramic production technology is a key indicator of craft specialization and social differentiation in Late Neolithic societies of the Central Plains. This study investigates Longshan-period pottery excavated from three representative sites, Niumugang, Zhoulonggang, and Shigudui in western Shangqiu, Henan Province. A suite of archaeometric techniques, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), infrared spectroscopy (IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), was employed to systematically examine the chemical composition, mineralogical phases, thermal behavior, and microstructural characteristics of the pottery assemblages. The results reveal statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in the contents of major ceramic-forming oxides (SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, CaO, etc.) among the three sites. Pottery from the Shigudui site exhibits the narrowest range of compositional variation, whereas that from the Zhoulonggang site shows moderate dispersion. In contrast, pottery from the Niumugang site displays the widest compositional range. Mineralogical analyses indicate that pottery from all three sites is primarily composed of quartz, mica, and mullite. Notably, the high degree of mineralogical homogeneity observed in the Shigudui assemblage reflects a well-controlled and technologically mature firing process. Microstructural observations further demonstrate that pottery from the Shigudui site is characterized by uniformly dense fabrics, functionally differentiated vessels from the Zhoulonggang site exhibit clear technological stratification, and black pottery from the Niumugang site shows highly compact microstructures. These technological patterns closely correspond to differences in vessel assemblages and indicate varying levels of craft specialization and production control. Together, the results provide archaeometric evidence for the differentiation of settlement hierarchy and the development of specialized handicraft production during the Longshan period, contributing to a deeper understanding of regional technological interaction and social processes within the Longshan cultural sphere of the Central Plains. Full article

Architectural typology classification plays an important role in large-scale documentation and analysis of urban cultural heritage. Recent advances in computer vision enable automated approaches for detecting and categorizing buildings from street-level imagery, yet the suitability of different detection paradigms for architectural typology analysis remains insufficiently explored. Despite recent advances in computer vision for architectural analysis, no systematic comparative study has evaluated closed-set CNN-based detectors against open-vocabulary vision–language grounding models for urban architectural typology classification. This study presents a comparative evaluation of closed-set convolutional object detectors and open-vocabulary vision–language grounding models for the classification of Athenian architectural typologies. A dataset of 3349 street-view images containing 11,111 annotated building instances was compiled and organized into five typological categories: Neoclassical, Neoclassical-Eclectic, Interwar-Eclectic, Interwar, and Postwar. The experiments compare several YOLO-based detection configurations with Grounding DINO under zero-shot inference, parameter-efficient adaptation (e.g., Kiw Rank Adaptation—LoRA), and full fine-tuning. Results show that supervised YOLO-based models achieve robust detection and classification performance with high localization accuracy and consistent typology discrimination in dense urban scenes. In contrast, open-vocabulary grounding models demonstrate limited reliability in zero-shot settings and require substantial adaptation to approach comparable performance levels. Analysis of confusion patterns further reveals that most classification errors originate from intrinsic architectural similarities between transitional styles rather than from model instability. The findings highlight the advantages of supervised object detection frameworks for scalable urban heritage documentation and provide insights into the current limitations of vision–language models for fine-grained architectural typology classification. Full article

Museums are increasingly required to combine digital transformation with sustainability goals under conditions shaped by ecological pressures, resource constraints, and long-term heritage responsibilities. This paper examines museum digital transition as a problem of strategic governance rather than merely technological adoption. Drawing on an exploratory qualitative case study based on the Italian ECO ART programme, the research analyses participatory activities, best practices, and project materials related to green and digital transition in the cultural sector. The findings show that the main barriers concern governance, process design, skills continuity, and monitoring, rather than technology alone. In response, the paper proposes a strategic framework composed of a Sustainability Matrix and a Roadmap. The matrix connects technologies, processes, and people with the cultural, social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability, while the Roadmap structures digital planning from diagnosis to monitoring. This work argues that digital transformation can support sustainable and resilience-oriented heritage management only when it is planned as a low-impact, inclusive, and long-term organizational process. Full article

The degradation of works of art constitutes a significant problem for the preservation of cultural heritage. In the case of paintings, the observed alterations can be physical, chemical, or visual, affecting both the integrity and appearance of the artworks. Degradation compromises the authenticity, aesthetic legibility, and historical value of paintings, making the early monitoring of such issues, as well as the development of appropriate conservation and restoration strategies, essential. For an effective approach, the characterisation of the materials and techniques used by the artist, as well as the degradation processes inherent in the materials used, proves to be crucial. In this context, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) emerges as a non-invasive solution capable of detecting and predicting degradation in works of art. This bibliographic review aims to explore existing studies in this field in depth, with special attention to contemporary paintings considered as case studies. The methodology involved a systematic review of peer-reviewed studies, theses, and interdisciplinary databases, using keywords related to the topic under investigation (e.g., “degradation detection,” “artificial intelligence,” “craquelure segmentation”). The results indicate that artificial intelligence enables the early detection of degradations that may not yet be visible to the naked eye while also improving objectivity and consistency in the analysis of complex and irregular patterns typical of paintings. It became evident that there is a significant gap in the literature, regarding studies addressing the potential of AI for degradation detection specific to contemporary paintings. However, these could be a valuable case study given their potential material and technical heterogeneity, as well as their differences from traditional easel paintings. Full article

The history of pictorial space can be understood as a history of visual artifice, perceptual constructions, and material illusions inscribed on the painted surface. This article examines some fundamental milestones in the relationship between pictorial surface and space through a comparative analysis spanning from the modern tradition to contemporary painting, with special attention to the work of Claude Monet and Mark Rothko. It studies those pictorial strategies capable of generating perceptual ambiguity and uncertainty in the observer as a source of aesthetic and emotional experience. Starting from the conical perspective as a historical device for representing space on a two-dimensional surface, the work analyses its progressive dissolution at the end of the 19th century and the emergence of new spatial resources based on colour, matter and the organisation of the pictorial surface. In this context, painting abandons traditional optical illusion to explore forms of perceptual spatiality that can be as tangible as constructed architecture. Taking an interdisciplinary approach that links art theory, the history of painting and visual analysis, the article contributes to our understanding of the ways in which materials, pictorial methods and compositional strategies shape spatial experiences in modern and contemporary painting. Full article

This study analyzes how identity fit, narrative selection, co-creation, and AI-Enhanced Interpretation (AII) shape Tourist Active Heritage Engagement in Ecuador. Using a cross-sectional survey of 1336 international tourists and PLS-SEM with Multigroup Analysis, the results show that engagement is driven primarily by identity-based selection, rather than participation alone. MGA reveals a marked asymmetry: AII increases engagement and co-creation only among visitors with high technological readiness, whereas for low-readiness tourists, co-creation may even diminish engagement. These patterns expose digital inequalities and asymmetries in narrative agency, echoing UNESCO’s concerns about AI’s selective influence on cultural knowledge flows. Overall, the study demonstrates that co-creation operates conditionally within identity-driven processes and underscores the need for inclusive, differentiated interpretive strategies. Full article

Oil paintings, sketches, and printed works on paper frequently exhibit characteristic forms of deterioration caused by the absorption of linseed oil binders into the paper substrate. This study investigates for the first time the factors influencing the resulting volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from oil-impregnated papers upon ageing and explores VOC quantifiable metrics suitable for condition assessment. Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPME–GC-MS) was employed to sample and analyse VOCs from mock-ups made of three types of paper (a pure cellulosic, lignin-free and lignin-containing lignocellulosic papers with alkaline buffer), three pure linseed oil formulations (cold-pressed and alkaline-refined linseed oil, and stand oil), and oil-impregnated paper mock-ups, all subjected to controlled artificial ageing. The results showed a clear difference in VOC profile emissions between pure papers and linseed oil formulations, while oil-impregnated mock-ups emitted compounds matching those of the linseed oil formulations; however, the emissions followed a different trend. Statistical analysis (PCA) demonstrated that both paper pulp content and oil formulation significantly influence VOC emission patterns, highlighting the compounds that produce higher and most characteristic emissions. Ratios of specific compounds—such as formic to acetic acid—showed consistent trends across materials, indicating their potential as markers for distinguishing stages of deterioration. Full article

This study examines the persistence, change, and discontinuity of human settlements in the northern Stig Plain along the Danube in Serbia. It examines how natural conditions, together with historical events and the strategic imperatives of specific periods, have shaped the establishment, development, decline, and abandonment of settlements in this landscape, as well as their change and transformation. Particular attention is given to the Roman city of Viminacium, now largely buried beneath fertile farmland and affected by mining activity. The research integrates theoretical perspectives on landscape, human–environment relations, and processes of discontinuity and change with insights into Roman urban planning and overall settlement dynamics, contextualised through the environmental and historical development of the landscape. It considers why Viminacium remained the only major urban centre in the plain and why no later settlement developed directly above it, reexamining whether this absence can be understood as a form of landscape discontinuity. The findings emphasise the strong influence of natural factors, while suggesting that the urban potential of the fertile Stig Plain could only be fully realised in the Roman period, through the establishment of a legionary fortress supported by advanced technology and organised labour, and guided by strategic objectives. From a heritage perspective, the study also examines the definition of landscape boundaries, highlighting Viminacium’s legacy as an integrative element that brings together remains from multiple periods into a unique and evolving cultural landscape worthy of preservation, though one that faces ongoing challenges in sustainable management. Full article

Contemporary art conservation increasingly relies on digital technologies capable of delivering accurate, non-invasive documentation across multiple scales. Within this framework, the study addresses the challenges of documenting and monitoring artworks integrated into historical architectural contexts, proposing an interdisciplinary and need-driven approach where conservation requirements guide technological choices. The methodology combines four survey techniques (static and mobile laser scanning, photogrammetry, and structured-light acquisition) to evaluate their effectiveness within a multi-scale workflow supporting conservation-oriented documentation. The workflow is tested on the Centro per la Scultura Contemporanea in Cagli, Italy, a museum where contemporary installations are structurally and conceptually connected within the historical architectural space. The paper presents a comparative assessment of the four sensors, considering both qualitative and quantitative parameters. Comparative analyses of the resulting point clouds was carried out using cloud-to-cloud distance measurements with a terrestrial laser scanning dataset as reference. Error distribution and geometric deviations are assessed to evaluate the performance of each sensor according to the scale and purpose of the survey. The results demonstrate that accessible and portable instruments can produce datasets targeted at conservation processes, when integrated within coherent digital workflows, in which architectural, spatial, and object-scale models are combined to create a digital documentation framework. Full article

In this paper, we present the result of the study conducted on aging tests carried out by the artist Emile Claus (1849–1924), composed of oil paint samples from three manufacturers: Blockx, Lefranc Bourgeois and Fritz Behrendt. These colors were applied neat and mixed with white on wooden panels prepared with white ground layer. A non-invasive analytical protocol, combining imaging techniques and physico-chemical analyses, was used to characterize potential differences between manufacturers for nominally identical colors. The differences highlight in this study include variations in nickel content in cobalt blue colors and aluminum content in madder lakes. It also discusses the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that led to the degradation of certain colors. Hyperspectral imaging further demonstrated that the addition of lead white induces a systematic shift of spectral inflection points toward shorter wavelengths, consistent with the optical dilution effect in pigment-white mixtures, while the altered colors do not follow the same trend. Full article