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COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2023) | Viewed by 29067

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Colin W. Binns

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Guest Editor

School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth 6845, Australia
Interests: public health nutrition; development of dietary guidelines; breastfeeding policy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Mi Kyung Lee

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Guest Editor

School of Health Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
Interests: nutrition; public health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue will publish a series of high-quality articles on key topics on the impact of COVID-19 on Women and Gender Equity.

The papers will be directed towards health professionals, women’s health experts, public health workers, social scientists, policy makers, and others concerned with the health impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on populations. The COVID-19 pandemic has been unprecedented in the past 100 years with at least 250 million cases and 5 million deaths. Acute infections with COVID19 have a gender bias towards males. However, the pandemic has led to widespread social, economic and public health disruption. Lower socioeconomic groups, minority groups and children have been adversely affected. Many women have had to bear the burden of additional problems due to disrupted maternal and child care, a collapse in routine vaccinations and increased the rates of malnutrition.

It is now apparent that up to one third of cases of COVID19 have residual disability (“Long Covid”) that may not resolve for months or years and in a minority of cases is permanent. These changes range from chronic fatigue to permanent neurological dysfunction. These have had a disproportionate impact on women in societies at all levels of development and in their own health suffers. We welcome papers on all aspects of gender and COVID19 and particularly related to women’s health. We also aim to include papers on epidemiology, including the social determinants of health, and prevention of further long-term morbidity. Papers from lower- and middle-income countries that document the burden of the pandemic on society are welcome. As the epidemic passes its peak, we will document the tragic impact on women to serve as guidance if the world is ever faced with another pandemic.

Papers could be either research papers with a detailed summary of authors own work, papers highlighting the ‘state-of-the-art developments’ in managing the short- and long-term impact of the pandemic and systematic reviews.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Healthcare.

Prof. Dr. Colin W. Binns
Dr. Mi Kyung Lee
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

COVID-19
corona virus
demography
breastfeeding
disadvantage
access to therapy
food shortages, malnutrition
education child vaccination disruptions during COVID
vaccine hesitancy
long COVID
women’s health
gender issues

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Brazilian Pregnant Women at the Beginning of the Coronavirus Disease Pandemic

by Jéssica Gorrão Lopes Albertini, Gláucia Rosana Guerra Benute, Maria de Lourdes Brizot, Stela Verzinhasse Peres, Rossana Pulcineli Vieira Francisco and Marco Aurélio Knippel Galletta

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21040461 - 10 Apr 2024

Viewed by 921

Abstract

Objective: Analyze the presence of PTSD symptoms and their risk among the pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study of pregnant women that received receiving prenatal care at two university hospitals in São Paulo, Brazil, during the COVID-19 pandemic, from April to June 2020. The sociodemographic and health data of the participants and their exposure to individuals suspected or confirmed to have COVID-19 were evaluated. The Impact of Event Scale-Revised and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to assess PTSD and anxiety symptoms, respectively. Results: A total of 149 pregnant women were included in this study. The risk of PTSD among the participants was 55.1%. The independent risk factors for PTSD were state anxiety (ORadj = 2.6), trait anxiety (ORadj = 10.7), changes in routine due to the pandemic (ORadj = 4.7) and contact with a confirmed case of COVID-19 person (ORadj = 7.1). Conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant negative impact on the mental health of pregnant women, more than half of the participants of the present study showed a risk of PTSD, exacerbated by anxiety symptoms and exposure to individuals with a confirmed case of COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

17 pages, 757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Narratives of Women and Gender Relations in Chinese COVID-19 Frontline Reports in 2020

by Shuoyu Fang and Li Zou

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(5), 4359; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054359 - 28 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1286

Abstract

This article analyzes the representation of women in Chinese news reports about COVID-19 in order to examine the consequences of the pandemic on gender relations in China. It draws on the linguistic framework of appraisal theory for identifying evaluative language and takes Chinese news reports on the COVID-19 frontline in 2020 as the major data sources. The study finds that while the narrative about women’s capacity in combating the virus, resolution in the face of adversity, and sense of responsibility help build a shared feeling of community to reconstruct the disturbed social order, the descriptions about the evaluation and feelings of female characters lead to undesirable outcomes in gender relations in China. Specifically, the newspapers’ reports on COVID-19 mainly focus on group interests and accomplishments and overlook women’s contributions in containing the pandemic. Meanwhile, the news reports devoted to constructing model female characters that highlight transcendent qualities place considerable pressure on everyday women. Furthermore, journalists tend to infuse their reports with gender bias when depicting women, including aesthetic appreciation of appearance and a focus on emotional reactions and domestic roles, which hinders the professional identity of women. This article sheds light on gender relations in China amid the pandemic, as well as the study of gender equality in media discourse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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10 pages, 350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assisting Homeless Women in a City in Brazil during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Context of a Street Outreach Office: The Perceptions of Health Professionals

by Nayara Gonçalves Barbosa, Hellen Aparecida de Azevedo Pereira, Marcelo Vinicius Domingos Rodrigues dos Santos, Lise Maria Carvalho Mendes, Flávia Azevedo Gomes-Sponholz and Juliana Cristina dos Santos Monteiro

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(2), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021011 - 05 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1246

Abstract

This study aimed to understand the perception of Street Outreach Office professionals regarding the health care offered to homeless women during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is a qualitative and descriptive study developed with nine health professionals of a Street Outreach Office team from a large city in the countryside of São Paulo State (Brazil) from December 2020 to April 2021. Data were obtained through interviews using a semi-structured script with questions about care practices directed to homeless women. The data were analyzed according to content analysis in the thematic modality. Two thematic categories were identified: (i) the reorganization of the Street Outreach Office to meet the demands of the population and (ii) the challenges in caring for homeless women during the pandemic. The activities were intensified with the team’s expansion and distribution of supplies such as masks and alcohol-based hand sanitizers. Our findings showed that the primary problem faced was pregnancy during the pandemic. The lack of material and structural resources and social apparatus to care for homeless women was also evidenced. It was possible to conclude that even with all the adversities, the professionals employed creative strategies, contributing, within their limitations, to the care of homeless women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

22 pages, 2685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of COVID-19 on Maternal Mental Health during Pregnancy: A Comparison between Canada and China within the CONCEPTION Cohort

by Nicolas Pagès, Jessica Gorgui, Chongjian Wang, Xian Wang, Jin-Ping Zhao, Vanina Tchuente, Anaïs Lacasse, Sylvana Côté, Suzanne King, Flory Muanda, Yves Mufike, Isabelle Boucoiran, Anne Monique Nuyt, Caroline Quach, Ema Ferreira, Padma Kaul, Brandace Winquist, Kieran J. O’Donnell, Sherif Eltonsy, Dan Chateau, Gillian Hanley, Tim Oberlander, Behrouz Kassai, Sabine Mainbourg, Sasha Bernatsky, Évelyne Vinet, Annie Brodeur-Doucet, Jackie Demers, Philippe Richebé, Valerie Zaphiratos and Anick Bérard Show full author list Hide full author list

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(19), 12386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912386 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2451

Abstract

The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal mental health has been described in Canada and China but no study has compared the two countries using the same standardized and validated instruments. In this study, we aimed to evaluate and compare the impact of COVID-19 public health policies on maternal mental health between Canada and China, as we hypothesize that geographical factors and different COVID-19 policies are likely to influence maternal mental health. Pregnant persons >18 years old were recruited in Canada and China using a web-based strategy. All participants recruited between 26 June 2020 and 16 February 2021 were analyzed. Self-reported data included sociodemographic variables, COVID-19 experience and maternal mental health assessments (Edinburgh Perinatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD-7) scale, stress and satisfaction with life). Analyses were stratified by recruitment cohort, namely: Canada 1 (26 June 2020–10 October 2020), Canada 2 and China (11 October 2020–16 February 2021). Overall, 2423 participants were recruited, with 1804 participants within Canada 1, 135 within Canada 2 and 484 in China. The mean EDPS scores were 8.1 (SD, 5.1) in Canada 1, 8.1 (SD, 5.2) in Canada 2 and 7.7 (SD, 4.9) in China (p-value Canada 2/China: p = 0.005). The mean GAD-7 scores were 2.6 (SD, 2.9) in China, 4.3 (SD, 3.8) in Canada 1 (p < 0.001) and 5.8 (SD, 5.2) in Canada 2 (p < 0.001). When adjusting for stress and anxiety, being part of the Chinese cohort significantly increased the chances of having maternal depression by over threefold (adjusted OR 3.20, 95%CI 1.77–5.78). Canadian and Chinese participants reported depressive scores nearly double those of other crises and non-pandemic periods. Lockdowns and reopening periods have an important impact on levels of depression and anxiety among pregnant persons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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13 pages, 1296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Femicide and Attempted Femicide before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Chile

by Erika Cantor, Rodrigo Salas and Romina Torres

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 8012; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19138012 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2801

Abstract

Experts and international organizations hypothesize that the number of cases of fatal intimate partner violence against women increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, primarily due to social distancing strategies and the implementation of lockdowns to reduce the spread of the virus. We described cases of attempted femicide and femicide in Chile before (January 2014 to February 2020) and during (March 2020 to June 2021) the pandemic. The attempted-femicide rate increased during the pandemic (incidence rate ratio: 1.22 [95% confidence interval: 1.04 to 1.43], p value: 0.016), while the rate of femicide cases remained unchanged. When a comparison between attempted-femicide and femicide cases was performed, being a foreigner, having an intimate partner relationship with a perpetrator aged 40 years or more, and the use of firearms during the assault were identified as factors associated independently with a higher probability of being a fatal victim in Chile. In conclusion, this study emphasizes that attempted femicide and femicide continued to occur frequently in family contexts both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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10 pages, 1032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of the Balance Model in the Analysis of Factors Responsible for Depressive Disorders among Women in the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Ewa Dobiała, Anna Gulczyńska, Rafał Małecki, Polina Efremova, Joanna Ławicka, Ewa Karmolińska-Jagodzik and Ivan Kirillov

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(12), 7361; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127361 - 15 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1345

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the lives and mental health of people around the world, and it has become clinically essential to define risk factors in order to provide adequate prevention and support. The aim of the study was to describe coping strategies in Polish women related to the COVID-19 pandemic using the balance model, one of the most important concepts of positive psychotherapy (PPT after Peseschkian since 1977). The analysis included 735 women at the mean age of 39.61 years. The survey was conducted using the questionnaire form on the website. Based on Beck’s depression test, depressive disorders were disclosed in 32.65%, and both the presence and severity of depressive syndromes were inversely correlated with age. Using a cluster analysis, three adaptation strategies could be identified, related to the different prevalence of depressive disorders. Relationships proved the most crucial area of the balance model, responsible for the effectiveness of the coping strategy. Based on the obtained results, it has to be concluded that preventive measures should primarily concern women aged < 25 years old and focus on strengthening the relationships area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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9 pages, 1122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Age, Sex, and Viral Load in Outpatients during the Four Waves of SARS-CoV-2 in A Mexican Medium-Sized City

by Carlos Eduardo Covantes-Rosales, Victor Wagner Barajas-Carrillo, Daniel Alberto Girón-Pérez, Gladys Alejandra Toledo-Ibarra, Karina Janice Guadalupe Díaz-Reséndiz, Migdalia Sarahy Navidad-Murrieta, Guadalupe Herminia Ventura-Ramón, Mirtha Elena Pulido-Muñoz, Ulises Mercado-Salgado, Ansonny Jhovanny Ojeda-Durán, Aimée Argüero-Fonseca and Manuel Iván Girón-Pérez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5719; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095719 - 08 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2112

Abstract

Governments have implemented measures to minimize SARS-CoV-2 spread. However, these measures were relaxed, and the appearance of new variants has prompted periods of high contagion known as waves. In Mexico, four waves distributed between July and August 2020, January and February 2021, August and September 2021, and January and February 2022 have appeared. Current health policies discourage mass sampling, preferring to focus on the corrective treatment of severe cases. Outpatients are only advised to undergo brief voluntary confinement and symptomatic treatment, with no follow-up. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze sex, age, and viral load in outpatients during the four waves in a medium-sized city in Mexico. For each wave, the date of peak contagion was identified, and data were collected within ±15 days. In this regard, data from 916 patients (434 men and 482 women) were analyzed. The age range of positive patients (37–45 years) presented a higher frequency during the first and third waves, while 28–36 years was the most frequent age range during the second and fourth waves, while the viral load values were significantly higher, for both sexes, during the fourth wave. Obtained data of COVID-19 prevalence in population segments can be used for decision-making in the design of effective public health policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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15 pages, 356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Health Impacts and Life Challenges Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic on Hong Kong Chinese Women

by Maria Shuk Yu Hung, Liliane Chui King Chan and Sisi Pui Shan Liu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5115; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095115 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a massive global crisis. The adverse impacts on Asian women, including Hong Kong Chinese women, have been considerable. The pressure on Hong Kong women is immense due to cultural, social, familial, and personal responsibilities. This study aims to illustrate the health impacts and life challenges for Hong Kong Chinese Women during the pandemic. An interpretive phenomenological approach with purposive sampling was adopted. Semi-structured, face-to-face, in-depth interviews were conducted from August 2020 to January 2021. Twenty-five women participated in the interviews, lasting an average of 48 min. The transcribed interviews were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. The core theme identified was “Perceived family caregiving as paramount self-obligation in times of the pandemic”, in the context of the role of daughter, wife, or mother (or a combination). Three interconnected themes have been identified in individual, relational, and external contexts: deterioration of personal health, unfavorable to family relationships, and adaptation to social challenges. Eight subthemes have emerged related to health impacts and life challenges. The pandemic has increased women’s perception of their caregiver roles in the family, but it has diminished their quality of life. The promotion of strategies and activities that could enhance women’s physical, psychological, emotional and social quality of life is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

19 pages, 371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The COVID-19 Lockdown and Mental Wellbeing of Females in China

by Chang-Lan Xia, An-Pin Wei and Yu-Ting Huang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 4960; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19094960 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1917

Abstract

Most studies consider that COVID-19 lockdowns lead to mental health problems for females, while the effect of role change on female mental health has been overlooked. This study aimed to explore multiple facets of the risk of mental distress in a sample of Chinese married females aged 21–50 during the COVID-19 lockdowns. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 613 valid responses from married females in the Guangdong province. Our primary tool was a questionnaire using a Kessler-10 scale to detect the probability of mental distress based on the level of nervousness, tiredness, restlessness, and depression. Eighty-eight point three percent of married females possessed a high risk of psychological distress because they frequently felt tired out, hopeless, and restless. The evidence suggests that the lockdown has caused a conflict in the female role to maintain a balance between family and career. Increasing family care responsibilities are positively associated with nervousness, tiredness, and mental disorder. The heterogeneity of the social role in mental wellbeing is explored. Married females whose income was worse off during the lockdown are negatively associated with mental wellbeing. Married females who are employed are found to be less mentally healthy than the self-employed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

16 pages, 774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Biggest Challenges Resulting from the COVID-19 Pandemic on Gender-Related Work from Home in Biomedical Fields—World-Wide Qualitative Survey Analysis

by Eva Bezak, Kristin V. Carson-Chahhoud, Loredana G. Marcu, Magdalena Stoeva, Lenka Lhotska, Gilda A. Barabino, Fatimah Ibrahim, Eleni Kaldoudi, Sierin Lim, Ana Maria Marques da Silva, Peck Ha Tan, Virginia Tsapaki and Monique Frize

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(5), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19053109 - 06 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4269

Abstract

(1) Background: This paper aims to present and discuss the most significant challenges encountered by STEM professionals associated with remote working during the COVID-19 lockdowns. (2) Methods: We performed a qualitative analysis of 921 responses from professionals from 76 countries to the open-ended question: “What has been most challenging during the lockdown for you, and/or your family?” (3) Findings: Participants reported challenges within the immediate family to include responsibilities for school, childcare, and children’s wellbeing; and the loss of social interactions with family and friends. Participants reported increased domestic duties, blurred lines between home and work, and long workdays. Finding adequate workspace was a problem, and adaptations were necessary, especially when adults shared the same setting for working and childcare. Connectivity issues and concentration difficulties emerged. While some participants reported employers’ expectations did not change, others revealed concerns about efficiency. Mental health issues were expressed as anxiety and depression symptoms, exhaustion and burnout, and no outlets for stress. Fear of becoming infected with COVID-19 and uncertainties about the future also emerged. Pressure points related to gender, relationship status, and ethnicities were also evaluated. Public policies differed substantially across countries, raising concerns about the adherence to unnecessary restrictions, and similarly, restrictions being not tight enough. Beyond challenges, some benefits emerged, such as increased productivity and less time spent getting ready for work and commuting. Confinement resulted in more quality time and stronger relationships with family. (4) Interpretation: Viewpoints on positive and negative aspects of remote working differed by gender. Females were more affected professionally, socially, and personally than males. Mental stress and the feeling of inadequate work efficiency in women were caused by employers’ expectations and lack of flexibility. Working from home turned out to be challenging, primarily due to a lack of preparedness, limited access to a dedicated home-office, and lack of previous experience in multi-layer/multi-scale environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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13 pages, 2563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender-Based Violence in the Asia-Pacific Region during COVID-19: A Hidden Pandemic behind Closed Doors

by Michiko Nagashima-Hayashi, Anna Durrance-Bagale, Manar Marzouk, Mengieng Ung, Sze Tung Lam, Pearlyn Neo and Natasha Howard

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2239; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042239 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4693

Abstract

Since the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been reports of increased violence against women globally. We aimed to explore factors associated with reported increases in gender-based violence (GBV) during the pandemic in the Asia-Pacific region. We conducted 47 semi-structured interviews with experts working in sexual and reproductive health in 12 countries in the region. We analysed data thematically, using the socio-ecological framework of violence. Risks associated with increased GBV included economic strain, alcohol use and school closures, together with reduced access to health and social services. We highlight the need to address heightened risk factors, the importance of proactively identifying instances of GBV and protecting women and girls through establishing open and innovative communication channels, along with addressing underlying issues of gender inequality and social norms. Violence is exacerbated during public health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Identifying and supporting women at risk, as well as preventing domestic violence during lockdowns and movement restrictions is an emerging challenge. Our findings can help inform the adoption of improved surveillance and research, as well as innovative interventions to prevent violence and detect and protect victims. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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Review

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16 pages, 377 KiB

Open AccessReview

COVID and Gender: A Narrative Review of the Asia-Pacific Region

by Colin W. Binns, Mi Kyung Lee, Thi Thuy Duong Doan, Andy Lee, Minh Pham and Yun Zhao

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(1), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010245 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2415

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has been the largest infectious disease epidemic to affect the human race since the great influenza pandemic of 1918-19 and is close to approaching the number of deaths from the earlier epidemic. A review of available data and the numerous currently available studies on COVID-19 shows that the rate of clinical cases is about 10% greater in females than males in Asia. However, the number of deaths is greater in males than in females. Women are more likely to experience the psychological effects of COVID-19 during and after acute infections. A significant proportion of acute COVID-19 infections continue and their prolonged symptoms have been reported. Further studies are needed, including detailed serology, to measure and monitor the incidence of COVID-19. The pandemic has had a widespread impact on broader societies including shortages of food, lockdowns and isolation. The number of orphans in developing countries has increased. Women have had to bear the major impacts of these community effects. More research is required to develop better vaccines acting against new strains of the virus and to develop systems to distribute vaccines to all people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Impact on Women and Gender Equality)

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