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Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Environmental Sources and Food Safety Issues

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Published Papers

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 28181

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Noreddine Benkerroum

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Guest Editor

Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 93 Mount Edward Rd Charlottetown, Charlottetown, PE C1A 5T1, Canada
Interests: fermented foods; lactic acid bacteria; microbial toxins; food safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are natural toxicants produced by various molds as secondary metabolites whose occurrence has been reported in virtually all food and feed commodities. Currently, there are more than 400 characterised mycotoxins with various toxicological effects spanning from mild gastroenteritis to debilitating cancer diseases. Risk assessment studies have established a definite link between aflatoxins and liver cancer in humans; they were thus classified in group 1 as “carcinogenic to humans” by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Other mycotoxins have been classified in group 2B as “possibly carcinogenic to humans” by the same organism. The co-occurrence of various mycotoxins apprears to be common in foods, which adds to the public health concerns they raise, as it may enhance individual toxicities.

Sustained efforts have been made to limit the incidence of mycotoxins in the food supply, and different approaches have been suggested. However, such an incidence is still alarming, especially in developing countries where good manufacturing and post-harvest practices are loosely implemented. The ubiquitous nature of molds and their versatility to grow and possibly produce mycotoxins under extreme conditions, the diversity of sources for food contamination with mycotoxin-producing molds, and the carry-over of some mycotoxins from feed to food of animal origin (in addition to their resistance to decontamination procedures) are some of the challenges that limit the efficacy of any approach aiming to eradicate mycotoxins from foods.

Despite the tremendous work that has been carried out on mycotoxins since the discovery of aflatoxins in 1960, further research is still needed to clarify many aspects related to the toxigenicity of mold strains, their environmental niches, and the routes of food contamination; little is as yet known about newly discovered (emerging) mycotoxins. With the new trend to develop science-based regulatory food safety standards, risk assessment plays a central role in the definition of pertainig regulations. Therefore, studies on this topic are currently encouraged to provide a clear view on the risk extent that mycototoxins pose to humans via food consumption, in order to adequately determine management measures.

This Special Issue is devoted to research articles, reviews, or mini-reviews on the occurrence of mycotoxins in foods, which compromises their overall hygienic quality and makes them unsafe for consumption. Research manuscripts on aflatoxins, their production, geographical distribution, seasonality of occurrence in foodstuffs, risk assessment studies, and related statistical data (e.g., exposure, intake, and levels of contamination) are encouraged.

Dr. Noreddine Benkerroum
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

Mycotoxins in food and feed
Geographical distribution
Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed
Emerging mycotoxins
Carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to food
Environmental factors influencing mycotoxin production
The interaction between mycotoxins with regard to their toxicity
Risk assessment related to the occurrence of mycotoxins in food
The prevention of food contamination with mycotoxins
Mycotoxin decontamination/detoxification in food and feed.

Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 6825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of miRNAs in Zearalenone-Promotion of TM3 Cell Proliferation

by Wanglong Zheng, Wentong Fan, Nannan Feng, Nanyan Lu, Hui Zou, Jianhong Gu, Yan Yuan, Xuezhong Liu, Jianfa Bai, Jianchun Bian and Zongping Liu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(9), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091517 - 29 Apr 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2919

Abstract

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a non-steroidal estrogen mycotoxin produced by several Gibberella and Fusarium species. Accumulating evidence has indicated that ZEA strongly stimulates cell proliferation. However the detailed molecular and cellular mechanisms of ZEA-mediated induction of cell proliferation have not yet been completely explained. The aim of this study was to detect the role of miRNAs in ZEA-mediated induction of cell proliferation. The effects of ZEA on cell proliferation were assessed using a cell counting kit assay and xCELLigence system. Micro-RNA sequencing was performed after treatment of TM3 cells with ZEA (0.01 μmol/L) for different time periods (0, 2, 6 and 18 h). Cell function and pathway analysis of the miRNA target genes were performed by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). We found that ZEA promotes TM3 cell proliferation at low concentrations. miRNA sequenceing revealed 66 differentially expressed miRNAs in ZEA-treated cells in comparison to the untreated control (p < 0.05). The miRNA sequencing indicated that compared to control group, there were 66 miRNAs significant change (p < 0.05) in ZEA-treated groups. IPA analysis showed that the predicated miRNAs target gene involved in cell Bio-functions including cell cycle, growth and proliferation, and in signaling pathways including MAPK and RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathways. Results from flow cytometry and Western Blot analysis validated the predictions that ZEA can affect cell cycle, and the MAPK signaling pathway. Taking these together, the cell proliferation induced ZEA is regulated by miRNAs. The results shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms for the mediation of ZEA to induce proliferation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Environmental Sources and Food Safety Issues)

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Review

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40 pages, 1410 KiB

Open AccessReview

Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries

by Noreddine Benkerroum

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041215 - 13 Feb 2020

Cited by 138 | Viewed by 7374

Abstract

This review aims to update the main aspects of aflatoxin production, occurrence and incidence in selected countries, and associated aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Means to reduce aflatoxin incidence in crops were also presented, with an emphasis on the environmentally-friendly technology using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are unavoidable widespread natural contaminants of foods and feeds with serious impacts on health, agricultural and livestock productivity, and food safety. They are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species distributed on three main sections of the genus (section Flavi, section Ochraceorosei, and section Nidulantes). Poor economic status of a country exacerbates the risk and the extent of crop contamination due to faulty storage conditions that are usually suitable for mold growth and mycotoxin production: temperature of 22 to 29 °C and water activity of 0.90 to 0.99. This situation paralleled the prevalence of high liver cancer and the occasional acute aflatoxicosis episodes that have been associated with these regions. Risk assessment studies revealed that Southeast Asian (SEA) and Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain at high risk and that, apart from the regulatory standards revision to be more restrictive, other actions to prevent or decontaminate crops are to be taken for adequate public health protection. Indeed, a review of publications on the incidence of aflatoxins in selected foods and feeds from countries whose crops are classically known for their highest contamination with aflatoxins, reveals that despite the intensive efforts made to reduce such an incidence, there has been no clear tendency, with the possible exception of South Africa, towards sustained improvements. Nonetheless, a global risk assessment of the new situation regarding crop contamination with aflatoxins by international organizations with the required expertise is suggested to appraise where we stand presently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Environmental Sources and Food Safety Issues)

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28 pages, 1286 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chronic and Acute Toxicities of Aflatoxins: Mechanisms of Action

by Noreddine Benkerroum

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(2), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020423 - 08 Jan 2020

Cited by 238 | Viewed by 11684

Abstract

There are presently more than 18 known aflatoxins most of which have been insufficiently studied for their incidence, health-risk, and mechanisms of toxicity to allow effective intervention and control means that would significantly and sustainably reduce their incidence and adverse effects on health and economy. Among these, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been by far the most studied; yet, many aspects of the range and mechanisms of the diseases it causes remain to be elucidated. Its mutagenicity, tumorigenicity, and carcinogenicity—which are the best known—still suffer from limitations regarding the relative contribution of the oxidative stress and the reactive epoxide derivative (Aflatoxin-exo 8,9-epoxide) in the induction of the diseases, as well as its metabolic and synthesis pathways. Additionally, despite the well-established additive effects for carcinogenicity between AFB1 and other risk factors, e.g., hepatitis viruses B and C, and the hepatotoxic algal microcystins, the mechanisms of this synergy remain unclear. This study reviews the most recent advances in the field of the mechanisms of toxicity of aflatoxins and the adverse health effects that they cause in humans and animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Environmental Sources and Food Safety Issues)

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47 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessReview

Retrospective and Prospective Look at Aflatoxin Research and Development from a Practical Standpoint

by Noreddine Benkerroum

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(19), 3633; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193633 - 27 Sep 2019

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5478

Abstract

Among the array of structurally and toxicologically diverse mycotoxins, aflatoxins have attracted the most interest of scientific research due to their high toxicity and incidence in foods and feeds. Despite the undeniable progress made in various aspects related to aflatoxins, the ultimate goal consisting of reducing the associated public health risks worldwide is far from being reached due to multiplicity of social, political, economic, geographic, climatic, and development factors. However, a reasonable degree of health protection is attained in industrialized countries owing to their scientific, administrative, and financial capacities allowing them to use high-tech agricultural management systems. Less fortunate situations exist in equatorial and sub-equatorial developing countries mainly practicing traditional agriculture managed by smallholders for subsistence, and where the climate is suitable for mould growth and aflatoxin production. This situation worsens due to climatic change producing conditions increasingly suitable for aflatoxigenic mould growth and toxin production. Accordingly, it is difficult to harmonize the regulatory standards of aflatoxins worldwide, which prevents agri-foods of developing countries from accessing the markets of industrialized countries. To tackle the multi-faceted aflatoxin problem, actions should be taken collectively by the international community involving scientific research, technological and social development, environment protection, awareness promotion, etc. International cooperation should foster technology transfer and exchange of pertinent technical information. This review presents the main historical discoveries leading to our present knowledge on aflatoxins and the challenges that should be addressed presently and in the future at various levels to ensure higher health protection for everybody. In short, it aims to elucidate where we come from and where we should go in terms of aflatoxin research/development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Environmental Sources and Food Safety Issues)

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