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Chronic Respiratory Diseases
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Chronic Respiratory Diseases

A special issue of Journal of Clinical Medicine (ISSN 2077-0383). This special issue belongs to the section "Pulmonology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2016) | Viewed by 142302

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. David Barnes

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Interests: lung cancer; sleep disordered breathing; pulmonary infections
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

For many decades there has been a sense of nihilism about chronic respiratory diseases. Treatment options have been both few in number and disappointing in efficacy. We are now in an exciting era, where significant progress has been made in investigation, treatment, and monitoring of a number of chronic respiratory disorders. We now have antifibrotic agents for fibrotic lung disease, new pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and new therapies for bronchiectasis. In addition to sputum clearance methodologies for bronchiectasis, we now have therapies aimed at reducing sputum production (e.g., macrolides), and therapy that improves sputum clearance (e.g., nebulised hypertonic saline). The concept of personalised medicine is an increasingly important one, in oncology in particular. This concept is becoming increasingly relevant in a number of chronic respiratory diseases. One example of this is the potential use of sputum and serum eosinophil levels in determining the role of inhaled steroids in COPD. This Special Issue will cover many of the advances in chronic respiratory disorders. We still have a long way to go, but the future is clearly brighter.

Prof. David Barnes
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Clinical Medicine is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  • bronchiectasis
  • interstitial lung disease
  • idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
  • chronic asthma
  • pulmonary hypertension

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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413 KiB  
Article
Monitoring of Physiological Parameters to Predict Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): A Systematic Review
by Ahmed M. Al Rajeh and John R. Hurst
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(12), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5120108 - 25 Nov 2016
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 9153
Abstract
Introduction: The value of monitoring physiological parameters to predict chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations is controversial. A few studies have suggested benefit from domiciliary monitoring of vital signs, and/or lung function but there is no existing systematic review. Objectives: To conduct a [...] Read more.
Introduction: The value of monitoring physiological parameters to predict chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations is controversial. A few studies have suggested benefit from domiciliary monitoring of vital signs, and/or lung function but there is no existing systematic review. Objectives: To conduct a systematic review of the effectiveness of monitoring physiological parameters to predict COPD exacerbation. Methods: An electronic systematic search compliant with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was conducted. The search was updated to April 6, 2016. Five databases were examined: Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, or MEDLARS Online (Medline), Excerpta Medica dataBASE (Embase), Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED), Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) and the Cochrane clinical trials database. Results: Sixteen articles met the pre-specified inclusion criteria. Fifteen of these articules reported positive results in predicting COPD exacerbation via monitoring of physiological parameters. Nine studies showed a reduction in peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2%) prior to exacerbation onset. Three studies for peak flow, and two studies for respiratory rate reported a significant variation prior to or at exacerbation onset. A particular challenge is accounting for baseline heterogeneity in parameters between patients. Conclusion: There is currently insufficient information on how physiological parameters vary prior to exacerbation to support routine domiciliary monitoring for the prediction of exacerbations in COPD. However, the method remains promising. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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1283 KiB  
Article
Plasma Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Concentration and Alveolar Nitric Oxide as Potential Predictors of Disease Progression and Mortality in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
by Jalpa Kotecha, Ludmila Shulgina, Darren W. Sexton, Christopher P. Atkins and Andrew M. Wilson
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(9), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5090080 - 07 Sep 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4639
Abstract
Background: Declining lung function signifies disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) concentration is associated with declining lung function in 6 and 12-month studies. Alveolar nitric oxide concentration (CANO) is increased in patients with IPF, however its [...] Read more.
Background: Declining lung function signifies disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) concentration is associated with declining lung function in 6 and 12-month studies. Alveolar nitric oxide concentration (CANO) is increased in patients with IPF, however its significance is unclear. This study investigated whether baseline plasma VEGF concentration and CANO are associated with disease progression or mortality in IPF. Methods: 27 IPF patients were studied (maximum follow-up 65 months). Baseline plasma VEGF concentration, CANO and pulmonary function tests (PFTs) were measured. PFTs were performed the preceding year and subsequent PFTs and data regarding mortality were collected. Disease progression was defined as one of: death, relative decrease of ≥10% in baseline forced vital capacity (FVC) % predicted, or relative decrease of ≥15% in baseline single breath diffusion capacity of carbon monoxide (TLCO-SB) % predicted. Results: Plasma VEGF concentration was not associated with progression-free survival or mortality. There was a trend towards shorter time to disease progression and death with higher CANO. CANO was significantly higher in patients with previous declining versus stable lung function. Conclusion: The role of VEGF in IPF remains uncertain. It may be of value to further investigate CANO in IPF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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Article
Physical Activity and Exertional Desaturation Are Associated with Mortality in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
by Baruch Vainshelboim, Mordechai Reuven Kramer, Shimon Izhakian, Ricardo M. Lima and Jose Oliveira
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(8), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5080073 - 18 Aug 2016
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6634
Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic lung disease that manifests in hypoxemia, inactivity, and poor prognosis. This study aimed to assess the prognostic role of physical activity (PA) and exertional desaturation (ED) with mortality in IPF. At baseline, 34 IPF patients (68 [...] Read more.
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic lung disease that manifests in hypoxemia, inactivity, and poor prognosis. This study aimed to assess the prognostic role of physical activity (PA) and exertional desaturation (ED) with mortality in IPF. At baseline, 34 IPF patients (68 (50–81) years) were interviewed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and SpO2 was assessed pre to post 6-min walking test (∆SpO2). Patients were prospectively followed up for 40 months. Receiver operating characteristics curve analysis determined cut-off points associated with mortality, and Cox proportional hazard ratio (HR) were conducted. Thresholds for increased mortality risk in IPF patients were determined as IPAQ ≤ 417 metabolic equivalent task (METS)-min/week, p = 0.004 (HR; 9.7, CI 95% (1.3–71.9), p = 0.027), and ∆SpO2 ≥ 10%, p = 0.002, (HR; 23.3, CI 95% (1.5–365), p = 0.025). This study demonstrated a significant association of PA and ED with mortality in IPF patients. The findings emphasize the clinical importance of PA and ED assessments to aid in IPF risk stratification, prognosis prediction, and in providing early appropriate treatments, such as pulmonary rehabilitation, PA consultation, oxygen supplementation, and lung transplantation referral. These results underscore that even low levels of PA corresponding to 100–105 min/week were associated with a reduced mortality risk and better survival in IPF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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Article
A Review of the Multidisciplinary Diagnosis of Interstitial Lung Diseases: A Retrospective Analysis in a Single UK Specialist Centre
by Nazia Chaudhuri, Lisa Spencer, Melanie Greaves, Paul Bishop, Anshuman Chaturvedi and Colm Leonard
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(8), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5080066 - 27 Jul 2016
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5558
Abstract
The accurate diagnosis and management of individuals with interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) poses an interesting challenge in clinical practice. A multidisciplinary team (MDT) approach is considered the gold standard. This is a single-centre retrospective review spanning a five-year period. We assessed the accuracy [...] Read more.
The accurate diagnosis and management of individuals with interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) poses an interesting challenge in clinical practice. A multidisciplinary team (MDT) approach is considered the gold standard. This is a single-centre retrospective review spanning a five-year period. We assessed the accuracy of prior ILD diagnosis, the methodology used to establish a correct diagnosis and how an MDT approach affected subsequent management. Our data supports an MDT approach in an experienced specialist ILD centre. We have demonstrated that diagnosis is often changed after an MDT review and that this impacts the subsequent management. Our results demonstrate that an MDT approach to diagnosis can establish a diagnosis in the majority of cases when prior diagnosis is uncertain (76%). We also show that a prior diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is deemed inaccurate in over 50% of cases after MDT discussion. We have shown that during diagnostic uncertainty the considered gold standard of proceeding to a lung biopsy is not always feasible due to disease severity and comorbidities. In these circumstances, an MDT approach to diagnosis of ILDs combines clinical data with serial lung function and disease behavior, with or without responses to previous treatment trials to establish an accurate expert diagnosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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Review

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5437 KiB  
Review
Fibrotic Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis: Key Issues in Diagnosis and Management
by Vasileios Kouranos, Joseph Jacob, Andrew Nicholson and Elizabetta Renzoni
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(6), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6060062 - 15 Jun 2017
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 13562
Abstract
The diagnosis of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) relies on the clinical evaluation of a number of features, including a history of significant exposure to potentially causative antigens, physical examination, chest CT scan appearances, bronchoalveolar lavage lymphocytosis, and, in selected cases, histology. The presence of [...] Read more.
The diagnosis of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) relies on the clinical evaluation of a number of features, including a history of significant exposure to potentially causative antigens, physical examination, chest CT scan appearances, bronchoalveolar lavage lymphocytosis, and, in selected cases, histology. The presence of fibrosis is associated with higher morbidity and mortality. Differentiating fibrotic HP from the idiopathic interstitial pneumonias can be a challenge. Furthermore, even in the context of a clear diagnosis of fibrotic HP, the disease behaviour can parallel that of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in a subgroup, with inexorable progression despite treatment. We review the current knowledge on the diagnosis, management, and prognosis of HP with particular focus on the fibrotic phenotype. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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Review
Role of Autoantibodies in the Diagnosis of Connective-Tissue Disease ILD (CTD-ILD) and Interstitial Pneumonia with Autoimmune Features (IPAF)
by Adelle S. Jee, Stephen Adelstein, Jane Bleasel, Gregory J. Keir, MaiAnh Nguyen, Joanne Sahhar, Peter Youssef and Tamera J. Corte
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(5), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6050051 - 04 May 2017
Cited by 57 | Viewed by 12834
Abstract
The diagnosis of interstitial lung disease (ILD) requires meticulous evaluation for an underlying connective tissue disease (CTD), with major implications for prognosis and management. CTD associated ILD (CTD-ILD) occurs most commonly in the context of an established CTD, but can be the first [...] Read more.
The diagnosis of interstitial lung disease (ILD) requires meticulous evaluation for an underlying connective tissue disease (CTD), with major implications for prognosis and management. CTD associated ILD (CTD-ILD) occurs most commonly in the context of an established CTD, but can be the first and/or only manifestation of an occult CTD or occur in patients who have features suggestive of an autoimmune process, but not meeting diagnostic criteria for a defined CTD—recently defined as “interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features” (IPAF). The detection of specific autoantibodies serves a critical role in the diagnosis of CTD-ILD, but there remains a lack of data to guide clinical practice including which autoantibodies should be tested on initial assessment and when or in whom serial testing should be performed. The implications of detecting autoantibodies in patients with IPAF on disease behaviour and management remain unknown. The evaluation of CTD-ILD is challenging due to the heterogeneity of presentations and types of CTD and ILD that may be encountered, and thus it is imperative that immunologic tests are interpreted in conjunction with a detailed rheumatologic history and examination and multidisciplinary collaboration between respiratory physicians, rheumatologists, immunologists, radiologists and pathologists. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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559 KiB  
Review
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: Chronic Lung Disease of Infancy and Long-Term Pulmonary Outcomes
by Lauren M. Davidson and Sara K. Berkelhamer
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6010004 - 06 Jan 2017
Cited by 269 | Viewed by 25277
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease most commonly seen in premature infants who required mechanical ventilation and oxygen therapy for acute respiratory distress. While advances in neonatal care have resulted in improved survival rates of premature infants, limited progress has been [...] Read more.
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease most commonly seen in premature infants who required mechanical ventilation and oxygen therapy for acute respiratory distress. While advances in neonatal care have resulted in improved survival rates of premature infants, limited progress has been made in reducing rates of BPD. Lack of progress may in part be attributed to the limited therapeutic options available for prevention and treatment of BPD. Several lung-protective strategies have been shown to reduce risks, including use of non-invasive support, as well as early extubation and volume ventilation when intubation is required. These approaches, along with optimal nutrition and medical therapy, decrease risk of BPD; however, impacts on long-term outcomes are poorly defined. Characterization of late outcomes remain a challenge as rapid advances in medical management result in current adult BPD survivors representing outdated neonatal care. While pulmonary disease improves with growth, long-term follow-up studies raise concerns for persistent pulmonary dysfunction; asthma-like symptoms and exercise intolerance in young adults after BPD. Abnormal ventilatory responses and pulmonary hypertension can further complicate disease. These pulmonary morbidities, combined with environmental and infectious exposures, may result in significant long-term pulmonary sequalae and represent a growing burden on health systems. Additional longitudinal studies are needed to determine outcomes beyond the second decade, and define risk factors and optimal treatment for late sequalae of disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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259 KiB  
Review
A Systematic Review of the Role of Dysfunctional Wound Healing in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
by Alan Betensley, Rabab Sharif and Dimitrios Karamichos
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6010002 - 26 Dec 2016
Cited by 71 | Viewed by 7897
Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive interstitial lung disorder showcasing an interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental risks. This usually involves the coaction of a mixture of cell types associated with abnormal wound healing, leading to structural distortion and loss of [...] Read more.
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive interstitial lung disorder showcasing an interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental risks. This usually involves the coaction of a mixture of cell types associated with abnormal wound healing, leading to structural distortion and loss of gas exchange function. IPF bears fatal prognosis due to respiratory failure, revealing a median survival of approximately 2 to 3 years. This review showcases the ongoing progress in understanding the complex pathophysiology of IPF and it highlights the latest potential clinical treatments. In IPF, various components of the immune system, particularly clotting cascade and shortened telomeres, are highly involved in disease pathobiology and progression. This review also illustrates two US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs, nintedanib (OFEV, Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany) and pirfenidone (Esbriet, Roche, Basel, Switzerland), that slow IPF progression, but unfortunately neither drug can reverse the course of the disease. Although the mechanisms underlying IPF remain poorly understood, this review unveils the past and current advances that encourage the detection of new IPF pathogenic pathways and the development of effective treatment methods for the near future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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246 KiB  
Review
Bronchiectasis in the Last Five Years: New Developments
by Jun Keng Khoo, Victoria Venning, Conroy Wong and Lata Jayaram
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(12), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5120115 - 08 Dec 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7621
Abstract
Bronchiectasis, a chronic lung disease characterised by cough and purulent sputum, recurrent infections, and airway damage, is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. To date, treatment options have been limited to physiotherapy to clear sputum and antibiotics to treat acute infections. Over the [...] Read more.
Bronchiectasis, a chronic lung disease characterised by cough and purulent sputum, recurrent infections, and airway damage, is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. To date, treatment options have been limited to physiotherapy to clear sputum and antibiotics to treat acute infections. Over the last decade, there has been significant progress in understanding the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and microbiology of this disorder. Over the last five years, methods of assessing severity have been developed, the role of macrolide antibiotic therapy in reducing exacerbations cemented, and inhaled antibiotic therapies show promise in the treatment of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Novel therapies are currently undergoing Phase 1 and 2 trials. This review aims to address the major developments within the field of bronchiectasis over this time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
1117 KiB  
Review
Diaphragm Dysfunction: Diagnostic Approaches and Management Strategies
by Bruno-Pierre Dubé and Martin Dres
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(12), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5120113 - 05 Dec 2016
Cited by 109 | Viewed by 17394
Abstract
The diaphragm is the main inspiratory muscle, and its dysfunction can lead to significant adverse clinical consequences. The aim of this review is to provide clinicians with an overview of the main causes of uni- and bi-lateral diaphragm dysfunction, explore the clinical and [...] Read more.
The diaphragm is the main inspiratory muscle, and its dysfunction can lead to significant adverse clinical consequences. The aim of this review is to provide clinicians with an overview of the main causes of uni- and bi-lateral diaphragm dysfunction, explore the clinical and physiological consequences of the disease on lung function, exercise physiology and sleep and review the available diagnostic tools used in the evaluation of diaphragm function. A particular emphasis is placed on the clinical significance of diaphragm weakness in the intensive care unit setting and the use of ultrasound to evaluate diaphragmatic action. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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1222 KiB  
Review
Advanced Therapeutic Strategies for Chronic Lung Disease Using Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery
by Ji Young Yhee, Jintaek Im and Richard Seonghun Nho
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(9), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5090082 - 20 Sep 2016
Cited by 93 | Viewed by 12621
Abstract
Chronic lung diseases include a variety of obstinate and fatal diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), and lung cancers. Pharmacotherapy is important for the treatment of chronic lung diseases, and current progress in nanoparticles [...] Read more.
Chronic lung diseases include a variety of obstinate and fatal diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), and lung cancers. Pharmacotherapy is important for the treatment of chronic lung diseases, and current progress in nanoparticles offers great potential as an advanced strategy for drug delivery. Based on their biophysical properties, nanoparticles have shown improved pharmacokinetics of therapeutics and controlled drug delivery, gaining great attention. Herein, we will review the nanoparticle-based drug delivery system for the treatment of chronic lung diseases. Various types of nanoparticles will be introduced, and recent innovative efforts to utilize the nanoparticles as novel drug carriers for the effective treatment of chronic lung diseases will also be discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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1654 KiB  
Review
Real World Experiences: Pirfenidone and Nintedanib are Effective and Well Tolerated Treatments for Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
by Gareth Hughes, Hannah Toellner, Helen Morris, Colm Leonard and Nazia Chaudhuri
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(9), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5090078 - 02 Sep 2016
Cited by 139 | Viewed by 12028
Abstract
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) now has two licensed treatments available. Pirfenidone was the first drug to be licensed and approved for use, followed by nintedanib. We set out our real world experience with these agents in terms of their adverse events profile outside [...] Read more.
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) now has two licensed treatments available. Pirfenidone was the first drug to be licensed and approved for use, followed by nintedanib. We set out our real world experience with these agents in terms of their adverse events profile outside the restrictions of a clinical trial. We have demonstrated in the real world setting, that side effects are common and predominantly gastrointestinal with both therapies. Our study shows that the side effects can be effectively managed in the majority of patients with an acceptable discontinuation rate similar to that seen in the clinical trials. These findings are compelling despite the fact that the patients in our study are older, have severer disease as depicted by baseline lung function and more co-morbidities. Our data provides ongoing evidence of the safety and tolerability of both pirfenidone and nintedanib in patients who would not have met the rigorous criteria to be included in a clinical trial. Both these agents are effective in the management of IPF and slow the progression of this debilitating life limiting condition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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Review
Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Common Respiratory Conditions: Classification, Evaluation and Management Strategies
by Daniel G. Fein, Ali N. Zaidi and Roxana Sulica
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(9), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5090075 - 26 Aug 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5634
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) due to chronic respiratory disease and/or hypoxia is classified as World Health Organization (WHO) Group III pulmonary hypertension. The patients most commonly encountered in clinical practice with group III PH include those with chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), diffuse parenchymal [...] Read more.
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) due to chronic respiratory disease and/or hypoxia is classified as World Health Organization (WHO) Group III pulmonary hypertension. The patients most commonly encountered in clinical practice with group III PH include those with chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), diffuse parenchymal lung disease, and sleep-disordered breathing. The purpose of this review is to outline the variable clinical significance of pulmonary hypertension in the most common pulmonary disease states and how a clinician may approach the management of these patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Respiratory Diseases)
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