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Karst Land System and Sustainable Development
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Karst Land System and Sustainable Development

A special issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (3 July 2023) | Viewed by 31461

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Xiaoyong Bai

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China
Interests: karst; land use; carbon sink; climate change; ecosystem services; soil erosion; soil organic carbon
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Karst areas are globally distributed and occupy about 15% of the Earth’s surface, supporting almost 20% of the world's population. However, the fragile eco-environment and the rapid water flow in karst areas pose many challenges for their protection and management. For example, it is a great challenge to evaluate the mutual feeding relationship between ecosystem carbon sinks (vegetation carbon sinks and carbonate chemical weathering carbon sinks) and land use in fragile karst areas. Additionally, it is a challenge to clarify the migration and transformation of nutrients and heavy metals in karst areas. As one of the largest continuous karst areas in the world, Southwest China has a very extensive distribution of sloping farmland. The karst region of South China provides a variety of ecosystem services, such as water supply, biomass production, and forest cover, while affecting soil erosion control, the nutrient energy cycle, hydrological climate function regulation, and carbon sequestration. With the intensification of human activities and the expansion of urbanization, the land use pattern has changed greatly, and the mechanisms of interference with the ecosystem have become more complex. Therefore, under the dual influence of climate change and human activities, promoting karst system science has important significance in clarifying the karst ecosystem’s patterns, processes, services, and functions—investigating its role in water–carbon–energy evolution and in the heavy metal hydrology–biogeochemical cycle process; revealing land–climate interactions and the water–energy–land–food nexus; and deeply evaluating the ecosystem quality, ecological security, and the sustainability of ecological restoration.

In this Special Issue, a group of leading experts plan to share their innovative ideas from experiments, model simulations, and observational perspectives across the field, from the system-specific scale to the large regional scale of karst systems. This Special Issue will mainly address the following scientific issues: (1) The evolution process of ecological and environmental quality, which is affected by climate change and land use change; (2) The hydrological and biogeochemical cycling of elements, which is driven by natural factors and human activities; (3) To evaluate vegetation carbon sinks, carbonate rock chemical weathering carbon sinks, and sustainable development strategies in the karst region of South China. This Special Issue can provide scientific and technological support for ecological construction and land use management in karst areas.

The research fields for this Special Issue encompass karst ecosystem quality, ecosystem services, climate change, ecological restoration, carbon sink evolution, land management, and element biogeochemical cycle. These are closely related to land system science, landscape, land–climate interactions, the water–energy–land–food nexus, ecosystem services, and multifunctionality and sustainability. Such research advancement will further promote the development Land journal.

  • The evolution process of ecological and environmental quality affected by climate change and land use change.
  • The hydrological and biogeochemical cycling of elements driven by natural factors and human activities.
  • To evaluate vegetation carbon sinks, carbonate rock chemical weathering carbon sinks, and sustainable development strategies in the karst region of South China.

Prof. Dr. Xiaoyong Bai
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • karst
  • land use
  • climate change
  • ecological restoration
  • karst carbon sink
  • ecological security
  • sustainable development
  • human activity
  • rural geography
  • watershed management

Published Papers (18 papers)

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24 pages, 9234 KiB  
Article
NDVI-Based Vegetation Dynamics and Their Responses to Climate Change and Human Activities from 2000 to 2020 in Miaoling Karst Mountain Area, SW China
by Yangyang Wu, Jinli Yang, Siliang Li, Chunzi Guo, Xiaodong Yang, Yue Xu, Fujun Yue, Haijun Peng, Yinchuan Chen, Lei Gu, Zhenghua Shi and Guangjie Luo
Land 2023, 12(7), 1267; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071267 - 21 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1412
Abstract
Understanding spatiotemporal shifts in vegetation and their climatic and anthropogenic regulatory factors can offer a crucial theoretical basis for environmental conservation and restoration. In this article, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of the Miaoling area from 2000 to 2020 is studied using [...] Read more.
Understanding spatiotemporal shifts in vegetation and their climatic and anthropogenic regulatory factors can offer a crucial theoretical basis for environmental conservation and restoration. In this article, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of the Miaoling area from 2000 to 2020 is studied using a trend analysis and the Mann–Kendall mutation test (MK test) to review the vegetation’s dynamic changes. Our study uses the Hurst index, a partial correlation analysis, and a geographic detector to investigate the contributions of climate change and human activities to regional vegetation changes and their drivers. We found that Miaoling’s annual average NDVI was between 0.66 and 0.83 in 2000–2020, with a mean of 0.766. The overall trend was slow upward (0.0009/year), and 53.82% of the region continued to grow and gradually increased from west to east in the spatial domain, among which the karst regional NDVI distribution area and its growth rate were higher than those of non-karst sites. Based on correlations between climatic factors and NDVI, precipitation seasonality (coefficient of variation, CV) had the strongest correlation (positive correlation) with NDVI, while vapor pressure deficit (VPD) had a negative correlation with NDVI. In the interaction, human activities played a dominant role in the influence of NDVI on the vegetation of Miaoling. The night light index had the most explanatory power on the NDVI (q = 0.422), and the interaction between anthropogenic factors and other factors dominated its explanatory power. This study has academic and practical importance for the management, protection, and sustainable development of karst basins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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20 pages, 4287 KiB  
Article
Factors Influencing Four Decades of Forest Change in Guizhou Province, China
by Xiaona Guo, Ruishan Chen, Michael E. Meadows, Qiang Li, Zilong Xia and Zhenzhen Pan
Land 2023, 12(5), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051004 - 3 May 2023
Viewed by 1606
Abstract
Globally, the loss of forest vegetation is a significant concern due to the crucial roles that forests play in the Earth’s system, including the provision of ecosystem services, participation in biogeochemical cycles, and support for human well-being. Forests are especially critical in mountains [...] Read more.
Globally, the loss of forest vegetation is a significant concern due to the crucial roles that forests play in the Earth’s system, including the provision of ecosystem services, participation in biogeochemical cycles, and support for human well-being. Forests are especially critical in mountains environments, where deforestation can lead to accelerated biodiversity loss, soil erosion, flooding, and reduced agricultural productivity, as well as increased poverty rates. In response to these problems, China has implemented a series of ecological restoration programs aimed at restoring forests. However, there is a lack of knowledge as to whether the forest cover is increasing or decreasing, as well as the relative roles played by natural and human factors in forest change. Here, we aim to address these issues by analyzing the pattern and process of the forest changes in Guizhou province, a typical mountainous karst area with a fragile environment in southwestern China, between 1980 and 2018, and evaluating the extent to which these forest changes were influenced by natural and anthropogenic driving forces. Using a temporal sequence of satellite images and a Markov model, we found that the forest cover increased by 468 km2, and that over 33% of the cropland in Guizhou province was converted into forest between 1980 and 2018, with the most significant increases in the forest cover occurring in Qiandongnan. Through correlation analyses and generalized linear model (GLM) regression, we demonstrate that management factors exerted a more significant positive impact on the forest cover than climate change. While the mean annual precipitation and temperature were mostly stable during the period studied, the effects of population and gross domestic product (GDP) on the forest changes weakened, and the influence of land-use change markedly increased. These findings provide valuable information for resource managers engaging in forest protection, deforestation prevention, and ecological restoration in similar regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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19 pages, 10423 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Roadbed Stability in Permafrost Area of Qinghai–Tibet Railway by MT-InSAR Technology
by Hui Liu, Songbo Huang, Chou Xie, Bangsen Tian, Mi Chen and Zhanqiang Chang
Land 2023, 12(2), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020474 - 14 Feb 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1517
Abstract
Permafrost areas pose a threat to the safe operation of linear projects such as the Qinghai–Tibet railway due to the repeated alternating effects of frost heaving and thawing settlement of frozen soil in permafrost area. Time series InSAR technology can effectively obtain ground [...] Read more.
Permafrost areas pose a threat to the safe operation of linear projects such as the Qinghai–Tibet railway due to the repeated alternating effects of frost heaving and thawing settlement of frozen soil in permafrost area. Time series InSAR technology can effectively obtain ground deformation information with an accuracy of up to millimeters. Therefore, it is of great significance to use time series InSAR technology to monitor the deformation of the permafrost section of the Qinghai–Tibet railway. This study uses multi-time InSAR (MT-InSAR) technology to monitor the deformation of the whole section of the Qinghai–Tibet railway, detect the uneven settlement of the railway roadbed in space, and detect the seasonal changes in the roadbed in the time domain. At the same time, the local deformation sections over the years are compared and discussed. The time series deformation monitoring results of the permafrost section Sentinel-1 data in 2020 show that the length of the railway roadbed from Tanggula station to Za’gya Zangbo station (TZ) section is approximately 620 m, the deformation of the east and west sides is uneven, and the average annual deformation difference is 60.68 mm/a. The impact of frozen soil in WangKun station to Budongquan station (WB) section on railway roadbed shows the distribution characteristics of high in the middle and low at both ends, and the maximum annual average settlement can reach −158.46 mm/a. This study shows that the deformation of permafrost varies with different ground layers. The impact of human activities on frozen soil deformation is less than that of topography and hydrothermal conditions. At the same time, the study determined that compared with other sections, the roadbed deformation of TZ and WB sections is more obvious. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 17048 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Temporal-Spatial Variation on Mountain-Flatland Landscape Pattern in Karst Mountainous Areas of Southwest China: A Case Study of Yuxi City
by Li Wu, Jing Zhou and Binggeng Xie
Land 2023, 12(2), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020435 - 7 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1251
Abstract
Taking Yuxi City, a typical mountain-flatland in the southwestern karst mountainous area, as an example, we used six remote sensing images from 1995 to 2018 as the main data sources, and the grid scale was used to calculate the landscape pattern index in [...] Read more.
Taking Yuxi City, a typical mountain-flatland in the southwestern karst mountainous area, as an example, we used six remote sensing images from 1995 to 2018 as the main data sources, and the grid scale was used to calculate the landscape pattern index in order to analyze the temporal-spatial evolution characteristics of the landscape pattern. The results are shown as follows: (1) At the class level, most landscape indices and fragmentation degrees of landscape units in the flatland area are significantly higher than those in the mountainous area. The layout of construction land and cultivated land is also more concentrated than that in the mountainous area, but the central tendency of forest and grass in the mountainous area is more eye-catching. (2) At the landscape level, although the landscape diversity index and landscape shape index of both the mountainous areas and the flatland areas decrease in the low-value area and increase in the high-value area, the proportion of high-value areas in the flatland area is noticeably greater. The proportion of the high-value areas of the largest patch index in the mountainous area is significantly greater, and in the flatland area, the low-value area continues to expand while the middle and high value areas continue to shrink. (3) The landscape shape of the flatland area is becoming more complex, and the landscape units in the mountainous area tend to be single. The natural landscape of forest and grass in the mountainous area continues to expand and tends to be contiguous, while the man-made landscape in the flatland area continually increases and shows fragmentation, reflecting the pattern characteristics formed by the coupling evolution of land use between two regions. The urban expansion and the increase in the construction land in the flatland area are mutually causal with the decrease in cultivated land and the increase in forest and grass in the mountainous area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 3810 KiB  
Article
Study on the Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Characteristics and Sources and Their Influence on Carbon Sinks in Karst Reservoirs
by Zhongfa Zhou, Jie Kong, Fuqiang Zhang, Yan Zou, Jiangting Xie and Chaocheng Wen
Land 2023, 12(2), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020429 - 6 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1138
Abstract
The hydrochemical analysis method was used to reveal the sources and spatiotemporal variations of carbon and nitrogen elements in the Pingzhai Reservoir, and the C–N coupling cycle and its influence on the karst carbon sink are discussed. The results show the following: (1) [...] Read more.
The hydrochemical analysis method was used to reveal the sources and spatiotemporal variations of carbon and nitrogen elements in the Pingzhai Reservoir, and the C–N coupling cycle and its influence on the karst carbon sink are discussed. The results show the following: (1) The hydrochemical type of the study area is HCO3-Ca. (2) From the river to the reservoir and then to the reservoir outlet, the values of HCO3− and δ13CDIC showed an opposite trend. The values of NO3−, δ15N-NO3−, and δ18O-NO3− were different in each stage of the river. (3) HCO3− mainly comes from the weathering of carbonate rocks and the oxidative decomposition of organic matter. Nitrate mainly comes from chemical fertilizers, soil organic nitrogen, sewage, and livestock manure. (4) The average proportion of HCO3− produced by HNO3 dissolving carbonate rock is 8.38%, but this part does not constitute a carbon sink. Compared with rivers, the proportion of HCO3− and (Ca2+ + Mg2+) produced by HNO3 dissolving carbonate rock in reservoir water is relatively large. The input of nitrate not only pollutes the water body with NO3− but also changes the carbon source/sink pattern of the water–rock interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 1924 KiB  
Article
Applicability Analysis of GF-2PMS and PLANETSCOPE Data for Ground Object Recognition in Karst Region
by Yu Zhang, Chaoyong Shen, Shaoqi Zhou, Ruidong Yang, Xuling Luo and Guanglai Zhu
Land 2023, 12(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12010033 - 22 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1301
Abstract
Remote sensing image with high spatial and temporal resolution is very important for rational planning and scientific management of land resources. However, due to the influence of satellite resolution, revisit period, and cloud pollution, it is difficult to obtain high spatial and temporal [...] Read more.
Remote sensing image with high spatial and temporal resolution is very important for rational planning and scientific management of land resources. However, due to the influence of satellite resolution, revisit period, and cloud pollution, it is difficult to obtain high spatial and temporal resolution images. In order to effectively solve the “space–time contradiction” problem in remote sensing application, based on GF-2PMS (GF-2) and PlanetSope (PS) data, this paper compares and analyzes the applicability of FSDAF (flexible spatiotemporal data fusion), STDFA (the spatial temporal data fusion approach), and Fit_FC (regression model fitting, spatial filtering, and residual compensation) in different terrain conditions in karst area. The results show the following. (1) For the boundary area of water and land, the FSDAF model has the best fusion effect in land boundary recognition, and provides rich ground object information. The Fit_FC model is less effective, and the image is blurry. (2) For areas such as mountains, with large changes in vegetation coverage, the spatial resolution of the images fused by the three models is significantly improved. Among them, the STDFA model has the clearest and richest spatial structure information. The fused image of the Fit_FC model has the highest similarity with the verification image, which can better restore the coverage changes of crops and other vegetation, but the actual spatial resolution of the fused image is relatively poor, the image quality is fuzzy, and the land boundary area cannot be clearly identified. (3) For areas with dense buildings, such as cities, the fusion image of the FSDAF and STDFA models is clearer and the Fit_FC model can better reflect the changes in land use. In summary, compared with the Fit_FC model, the FSDAF model and the STDFA model have higher image prediction accuracy, especially in the recognition of building contours and other surface features, but they are not suitable for the dynamic monitoring of vegetation such as crops. At the same time, the image resolution of the Fit_FC model after fusion is slightly lower than that of the other two models. In particular, in the water–land boundary area, the fusion accuracy is poor, but the model of Fit_FC has unique advantages in vegetation dynamic monitoring. In this paper, three spatiotemporal fusion models are used to fuse GF-2 and PS images, which improves the recognition accuracy of surface objects and provides a new idea for fine classification of land use in karst areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 3963 KiB  
Article
Evolution of Land Use Landscape Patterns in Karst Watersheds of Guizhou Plateau and Its Ecological Security Evaluation
by Yue Li and Huacai Geng
Land 2022, 11(12), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11122225 - 7 Dec 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2218
Abstract
Landscape ecological safety is of great significance in maintaining ecological balance, ecological protection, economic development, and promoting the sustainable use of regional land resources. This study collects three-phase remote sensing (RS) image data of 2000, 2010, and 2020 to elucidate the spatial and [...] Read more.
Landscape ecological safety is of great significance in maintaining ecological balance, ecological protection, economic development, and promoting the sustainable use of regional land resources. This study collects three-phase remote sensing (RS) image data of 2000, 2010, and 2020 to elucidate the spatial and temporal changes in land use of the Guizhou Plateau Karst Watershed. We construct a landscape ecological security index using the ArcGIS and landscape pattern index method. With the spatial autocorrelation theory, we analyze the evolution of watershed landscape patterns and changes in characteristics of ecological security. The results show that the cultivated land is being converted to construction land in the watershed from 2000 to 2020. The percentage of the patch area of the constructed land is increasing. However, the patch cohesion of the cultivated land, grassland, and watershed is decreasing. The ecological safety of the Nanming River Basin landscape is in a positive trend, clustering in the central urban areas. The growth rate of the landscape ecological safety index increased by 5.80% from 2000 to 2020, and the aggregation of the ecological safety index was dominated by high–high aggregation and low–low aggregation, which was spatially positively correlated with the spatial aggregation effect. The findings provide a scientific reference for managing ecological balance and optimizing the land resource allocation in karst watersheds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 6551 KiB  
Article
Responses of NDVI to Climate Change and LUCC along Large-Scale Transportation Projects in Fragile Karst Areas, SW China
by Yangyang Wu, Lei Gu, Siliang Li, Chunzi Guo, Xiaodong Yang, Yue Xu, Fujun Yue, Haijun Peng, Yinchuan Chen, Jinli Yang, Zhenghua Shi and Guangjie Luo
Land 2022, 11(10), 1771; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101771 - 12 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1820
Abstract
The fragile karst habitat is extremely sensitive to human activities such as large-scale engineering construction. To explore the influence of the construction and operation of the GH (Guiyang-Huangguoshu) highway on the vegetation within a certain range and the response of NDVI to climate [...] Read more.
The fragile karst habitat is extremely sensitive to human activities such as large-scale engineering construction. To explore the influence of the construction and operation of the GH (Guiyang-Huangguoshu) highway on the vegetation within a certain range and the response of NDVI to climate factors, Landsat data were used to synthesize annual NDVI maps using the maximum value compositing method. Trend, correlation, and coefficient of variation analyses were performed. The results demonstrate that: (1) During the construction and operation periods, NDVI showed an overall upward trend, and the NDVI value and growth rate in the contrast area were greater than those in the core area; (2) the correlation between temperature and vegetation cover along the GH highway was stronger than that between precipitation and vegetation; (3) construction of the GH highway has had a significant impact on the surrounding vegetation, with the impact on vegetation ecology along the road mainly concentrated within the 2 km range. The increase of artificial surfaces along the road has had a great impact on the NDVI, and the vegetation cover change in the core area is more significant than that in the contrast area; and (4) the overall disturbance of the GH highway project to the surrounding ecology was mainly observed in the form of low and medium fluctuations. This study aims to provide a reference for environmental assessment and management in karst areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 3408 KiB  
Article
The Spatial and Temporal Evolution Pattern and Transformation of Urban–Rural Construction Land in Karst Mountainous Areas: Qixingguan District of Guizhou, Southwest China
by Yaopeng Sun, Zhongfa Zhou, Denghong Huang, Quan Chen and Min Fang
Land 2022, 11(10), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101734 - 7 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1737
Abstract
Studying the temporal and spatial evolution pattern and transformation rule of urban–rural construction land in karst mountainous areas has important guiding significance for urban development boundary planning, red lines for ecological protection, and cultivated land protection. The present study took 46 townships (streets) [...] Read more.
Studying the temporal and spatial evolution pattern and transformation rule of urban–rural construction land in karst mountainous areas has important guiding significance for urban development boundary planning, red lines for ecological protection, and cultivated land protection. The present study took 46 townships (streets) in Qixingguan District of Guizhou Province, southwest China, as the research area; collected the current status of four-phase land use data in 2009, 2013, 2017, and 2020; and used GIS spatial analysis models and geographical detectors to analyze the temporal and spatial evolution pattern characteristics and influencing factors of urban–rural construction. The results showed the following: (1) Since 2009, the total area of urban–rural construction land has continued to increase; the largest area is rural residential land, followed by urban land and transportation land, with relatively little urban industrial and mining land, scenic spots, and special land. The growth rate of land used for transport increased rapidly, and urban land grew faster than rural residential land. (2) More than 57.72% of the newly increased urban–rural construction land came from cultivated land, but the transformation of cultivated land for construction gradually slowed down; 57.48% of urban–rural construction land was transferred for reclamation as cultivated land. During the study period, the transformation of cultivated land to construction land was more intense (the transfer out of cultivated land was greater than the transfer in by 9541.94 hm2). (3) There are strong spatial differences in the density of urban–rural construction land, showing scattered agglomeration distribution, and the degree of aggregation in medium-high- and high- density areas is further strengthened, expanding to the east and southwest. (4) The growth of urban–rural construction land has been controlled by a variety of complex factors, the most influential of which are the completion of fixed asset investment in society as a whole and the total fiscal revenue, with explanatory power (PD) values of 0.819 and 0.607, respectively. Interactions between detection factors have a greater impact on the spatial differentiation of urban–rural construction land than single factors. The results of this study can provide basic research data and support the control and high-quality development of urban–rural construction land in Qixingguan District and karst mountain areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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25 pages, 6571 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Land Use Dynamics of Different Rural Settlement Types in the Karst Trough Valleys of Southwest China
by Yiyi Zhang, Yangbing Li, Guangjie Luo, Xiaoyong Bai, Juan Huang, Fang Tang and Meng Yu
Land 2022, 11(9), 1572; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091572 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2507
Abstract
Rural settlements are the basic spatial units of rural geography research, and it is essential to explore the dynamic changes in land use on a rural settlement scale to promote the development of the rural revitalization strategy. The study took different rural settlement [...] Read more.
Rural settlements are the basic spatial units of rural geography research, and it is essential to explore the dynamic changes in land use on a rural settlement scale to promote the development of the rural revitalization strategy. The study took different rural settlement types in karst trough valleys as examples and applied geographic information mapping trajectory models, buffer zone spatial analysis, the nearest neighbor index, and other research methods. We explored the land use dynamic change in the buffer zone of different settlement types in the karst trough valley from 1964 to 2021 in the long time series and micro-spatial dimensions. We analyzed the homogeneity, variability, and coupling characteristics of land use evolution in typical settlements. The results indicate the following: (1) From 1964 to 2021, the karst trough valley settlements as a whole showed an aggregation state, and the settlements could be classified into four categories: expanding settlements (ES), atrophic settlements (AS), balancing rural settlements (BS), and decreasing settlements (DS) according to the settlement life cycle theory and settlement development index measurement. (2) Different expansion and shrinkage of land use buffer changes exist for different settlement types. The closer the ES is to the location of the settlement center, the richer the land use type; the further the AS from the settlement center, the richer the land use type; the BS is not affected by the distance; and the DS settlement shows dynamic changes. (3) Land use dynamic change in settlements is driven by multiple integrated factors, and there is variability in the driving factors of different settlement types. (4) In this paper, through a case study, we propose the research idea that land use change (LUCC) reflects land use transformation (LUT) in different rural settlement types from a settlement-scale perspective, and land use transformation further causes the development of rural settlement transformation (RUT). Our study revealed the LUCC—LUT—RUT interaction feedback mechanism of karst trough valley settlements in Southwest China. This study aims to enrich the theoretical research framework of rural transformation at the settlement scale, on the one hand, and to provide case studies for developing countries with karstic mountain valley landscapes, such as China, on the other. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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20 pages, 4890 KiB  
Article
Analysis Long-Term and Spatial Changes of Forest Cover in Typical Karst Areas of China
by Fei Chen, Xiaoyong Bai, Fang Liu, Guangjie Luo, Yichao Tian, Luoyi Qin, Yue Li, Yan Xu, Jinfeng Wang, Luhua Wu, Chaojun Li, Sirui Zhang and Chen Ran
Land 2022, 11(8), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081349 - 18 Aug 2022
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2042
Abstract
In recent decades, China has exhibited the fastest and most remarkable social-economic development in the world. As a result of such development, the forest cover of the country has undergone radical changes. This paper aims to develop a method for analyzing long-term and [...] Read more.
In recent decades, China has exhibited the fastest and most remarkable social-economic development in the world. As a result of such development, the forest cover of the country has undergone radical changes. This paper aims to develop a method for analyzing long-term and spatial changes in forest cover based on historical maps and remote sensing images. Moreover, we will focus on the reduction or restoration of forests distributed at different altitudes, slopes, soils, and lithologic types in different periods, to reveal the problems that should be paid attention to in forest restoration in karst areas. A typical county of China was selected as the study area. A historical military operation map was considered the principal source of basic data. These data were then combined with Landsat satellite images to conduct quantitative analysis on changes in the spatial area and location of forest cover with a long time series. The findings are as follows: in terms of time series, the forest area in the study area showed a trend of decreasing at first and then increasing, with the year 1986 as the turning point. In terms of spatial patterns, a considerable difference is observed in regions with changes in forest cover under different historical periods. Changes are obvious in limestone areas, rock soil areas, and areas with an elevation of 2000–2500 m and a slope gradient of 6°–15°. Spatial–temporal changes in forest cover reflect the effects of the war, national policy, and economic development to some extent. All these results indicate that, despite its limitations, a historical map is a valuable document for studying an ecological environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 5405 KiB  
Article
Temporal Changes in Land Use, Vegetation, and Productivity in Southwest China
by Xuan Li, Li Rong, Mengmeng Zhang, Wensong Yang, Zhen Zeng, Chengjun Yuan and Qi Wang
Land 2022, 11(8), 1331; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081331 - 17 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1174
Abstract
In recent decades, vegetation coverage and land use/land cover (LULC) have constantly changed, especially in southwest China. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research into the temporal–spatial variation patterns of vegetation greening, LULC, and gross primary productivity (GPP). Here, we used remote [...] Read more.
In recent decades, vegetation coverage and land use/land cover (LULC) have constantly changed, especially in southwest China. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research into the temporal–spatial variation patterns of vegetation greening, LULC, and gross primary productivity (GPP). Here, we used remote sensing to analyze the spatial and temporal variation in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and GPP in the growing season under different LULCs in southwest China. Results showed: (1) From 2000–2019, the forest area in southwest China had increased by 2.1%, while the area of cropland and grassland had decreased by 3.2% and 5.5%, respectively. Furthermore, there are significant differences in spatial variation patterns. (2) NDVI and GPP in the growing season showed a general increasing trend (p < 0.01); vegetation coverage is dominated by high coverage to highest coverage and medium coverage to high coverage transfer. (3) Under different LULCs, the migration directions of NDVI and GPP were different. The center of gravity migration of highest and medium coverage shifted to the southeast by 1.69° and to the northwest by 1.81°, respectively. The results showed the ecosystem evolution and will help to guide the maintenance measure of ecosystem balance and sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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31 pages, 30566 KiB  
Article
Identifying the Multi-Scale Influences of Climate Factors on Runoff Changes in a Typical Karst Watershed Using Wavelet Analysis
by Luhua Wu, Shijie Wang, Xiaoyong Bai, Fei Chen, Chaojun Li, Chen Ran and Sirui Zhang
Land 2022, 11(8), 1284; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081284 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2063
Abstract
Identifying the impacts of climatic factors on runoff change has become a central topic in climate and hydrology research. This issue, however, has received minimal attention in karst watersheds worldwide. Multi-resolution analysis (MRA), continuous wavelet transform (CWT), cross wavelet transform (XWT) and wavelet [...] Read more.
Identifying the impacts of climatic factors on runoff change has become a central topic in climate and hydrology research. This issue, however, has received minimal attention in karst watersheds worldwide. Multi-resolution analysis (MRA), continuous wavelet transform (CWT), cross wavelet transform (XWT) and wavelet transform coherence (WTC) are used to study the teleconnection in time and frequency between climate change and hydrological processes in a typical karst watershed at different time scales. The main results are: (1) All climatic factors exhibit a main cycle at 12-month time scales with runoff changes, but the main periodic bandwidth of rainfall on runoff changes is much wider than that of temperature and evaporation, indicating that rainfall is the main factor affecting runoff changes. (2) In other cycles, the impact of rainfall on runoff changes is the interlacing phenomena with positive and negative, but the impact of temperature and evaporation on runoff change is mainly negative. (3) The response of runoff to rainfall is in time in the high-energy region and the low-energy significant-correlation region and has shown a positive correlation with a smaller phase angle, but it is slightly lagged at 16-month time scales. Moreover, the runoff change lags behind temperature and evaporation for 1–2 months in those regions. (4) It has been found that there is a strong effect of rainfall over runoff, but a lesser effect of temperature and evaporation over runoff. The study sheds light on the main teleconnections between rainfall, evapotranspiration and surface runoff, which in turn might help to attain the better management of water resources in typical karst watersheds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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20 pages, 5703 KiB  
Article
The Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Ecological Environment Quality in Karst Ecologically Fragile Areas Driven by Poverty Alleviation Resettlement
by Zhongfa Zhou, Qing Feng, Changli Zhu, Wanlin Luo, Lingyu Wang, Xin Zhao and Lu Zhang
Land 2022, 11(8), 1150; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081150 - 26 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1704
Abstract
Many scholars are skeptical about the poverty reduction effect and the ecological effect of poverty alleviation resettlement (PAR). This study evaluates the spatial and temporal evolution of the ecological environment quality (EEQ) to analyze the effectiveness of ecological restoration from PAR. Based on [...] Read more.
Many scholars are skeptical about the poverty reduction effect and the ecological effect of poverty alleviation resettlement (PAR). This study evaluates the spatial and temporal evolution of the ecological environment quality (EEQ) to analyze the effectiveness of ecological restoration from PAR. Based on cloud computing using the Google Earth Engine platform, remote-sensing data were obtained and reconstructed from 2000 to 2020. The remote-sensing ecological index (RSEI) was used to analyze the spatial and temporal evolution of EEQ. The results show that the RSEI of the study area increased by 13.07% after the implementation of PAR, and the rate of increase was higher than that in the period before PAR; the Pu’an and Qinglong areas improved most obviously, in terms of the fragile ecological environment and the prominent contradiction between peasants and land. The residual trends method indicated that the contribution rate of improvement in RSEI due to PAR was 70.56%, 88.38%, and 82.96% in 2017, 2018, and 2020, respectively. An increase in RSEI was more obvious in the area with a greater relocated population and a higher corresponding coupling coordination level. PAR has a promoting effect on EEQ improvement but does not have ecological restoration benefits in every region. It is not satisfactory in terms of the degeneration of the LST indicator and the ecological impact of human wells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 6284 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Evolution and Quantitative Attribution of Soil Erosion Based on Slope Units: A Case Study of a Karst Plateau-Gorge Area in SW China
by Chuhong Shen, Kangning Xiong and Tian Shu
Land 2022, 11(8), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081134 - 24 Jul 2022
Viewed by 1395
Abstract
Exploring the dynamics of soil erosion and identifying its driving mechanisms is key to understanding soil erosion processes, particularly in karst areas. In this study, the RUSLE model, optimized on the basis of rocky desertification factors, was used to estimate soil erosion in [...] Read more.
Exploring the dynamics of soil erosion and identifying its driving mechanisms is key to understanding soil erosion processes, particularly in karst areas. In this study, the RUSLE model, optimized on the basis of rocky desertification factors, was used to estimate soil erosion in a karst plateau gorge area in SW China. The spatial and temporal dynamics of soil erosion in the region over the past 20 years were analyzed on the basis of slope units, while the relationship between soil erosion and elevation, slope, fractional vegetation cover (FVC), karst rocky desertification (KRD), rainfall, and land use cover/change (LUCC) was identified quantitatively by the geographical detector on the basis of spatial heterogeneity. The results showed that: (1) The no erosion area decreased from 2000 to 2020, with the highest proportion of light to medium erosion and an increasing trend of soil erosion. (2) Soil erosion conversion mainly occurred between no erosion, slight erosion, and light erosion. (3) The hotspots of erosion occurred in high slope–low elevation and high slope–high elevation units, while the coldspots of erosion occurred in low slope–low elevation units. (4) Soil erosion was positively correlated with FVC and slope, and negatively correlated with KRD. (5) The dominant factor of soil erosion changed from KRD-slope to LUCC-slope and finally to elevation-slope, while the q value of rainfall-elevation had the most significant increase throughout the study period. This study will help to advance the goal of sustainable development of soil and water conservation in karst areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 2753 KiB  
Article
Modeling Analysis on Coupling Mechanisms of Mountain–Basin Human–Land Systems: Take Yuxi City as an Example
by Li Wu, Yanjun Yang and Binggeng Xie
Land 2022, 11(7), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11071068 - 13 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1228
Abstract
The result of a human–land relationship in geographical environment systems is a human–land coupling system, which is a comprehensive process of interaction and infiltration between human economic and social systems and the natural ecosystem. Based on the recognition that the human–land system is [...] Read more.
The result of a human–land relationship in geographical environment systems is a human–land coupling system, which is a comprehensive process of interaction and infiltration between human economic and social systems and the natural ecosystem. Based on the recognition that the human–land system is a nonlinear system coupled by multiple factors, a time delay fractional order dynamics model with a Holling-II-type transformation rate was constructed, the stability analysis of the system was carried out, the transformation times of different land classes were clarified, and the coupled dynamics model parameters of mountainous areas and basin areas were obtained by using the land-use change survey data and socio-economic statistical data in Yuxi City, respectively: the transformation parameter of the production and living land to the unused land in mountainous areas and basin areas (aM, 0.0486 and aB, 0.0126); the transformation parameter of unused land to production and living land in mountainous areas and basin areas (bM 0.0062 and bB, 0.0139); the transformation parameter of unused land to the forest and grass land in mountainous areas and basin areas (sM, 0.0051 and sB, 0.0028); the land area required to maintain the individual unit in mountainous areas and basin areas (hM, 0.0335 and hB, 0.0165); the average reclamation capacity in mountainous areas and basin areas (dM, 0.03 and dB, 0.05); the inherent growth rate of populations in mountainous areas and basin areas (rM, 0.0563 and rB, 0.151). Through analyzing the coupling mechanisms of human–land systems, the countermeasures for the difference between mountainous areas and basin areas in the future development are put forward. The mountainous area should reduce the conversion of forest and grass land to production and living land by reducing the average reclamation or development capacity, reducing the excessive interference of human beings on unused land, and speeding up its natural recovery and succession to forest and grass land. In addition to reducing the average reclamation or development capacity in basin areas, the reclamation or development rate of the idle land and degraded land should be increased, and the conversion of idle land and degraded land into productive and living land should be encouraged by certain scientific and technological means. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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23 pages, 2724 KiB  
Article
Accounting for Value Changes in Cultivated Land Resources within the Karst Mountain Area of Southwest China, 2001–2020
by Lu Zhang, Zhongfa Zhou, Quan Chen, Lan Wu, Qing Feng, Dan Luo and Tangyin Wu
Land 2022, 11(6), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11060765 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1547
Abstract
Cultivated land resources are important natural resource assets that are related to food security and sustainable development. Due to the many restrictive factors of the karst landform on agricultural production, the quantity and quality of cultivated land in the karst mountainous areas in [...] Read more.
Cultivated land resources are important natural resource assets that are related to food security and sustainable development. Due to the many restrictive factors of the karst landform on agricultural production, the quantity and quality of cultivated land in the karst mountainous areas in Southwest China are poor. Reclaiming cultivated land to develop economy or to avoid transitional reclamation to protect ecology is an important proposition in this area. Analyzing changes in the physical and monetary value of cropland resources can help us to formulate more reasonable policies for the development and utilization of cultivated land resources, and to achieve a win-win scenario for economic development and ecological protection. Using multi-source remote sensing data and 20-year landcover data obtained by the GEE platform, this paper evaluated the cropland resources of the karst mountain areas of China at the pixel level. It was found that under the apparent outflow of the physical account of the cultivated land resources, the monetary value still maintained growth, proving that the current cultivated land-use policy in Guizhou Province has significantly improved the value of local cultivated land resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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Review

Jump to: Research

16 pages, 6267 KiB  
Review
Horst-Controlled Karstification in the Bakony Region (Hungary)
by Márton Veress
Land 2023, 12(3), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12030682 - 14 Mar 2023
Viewed by 993
Abstract
The karst of the horsts of the Bakony Region belonging to horst types of different development is described. Horsts elevated to the summit position are characterised by the most widespread and diverse karstification (with covered karst, cave-ins and shafts). Cryptopeneplains affect the karstification [...] Read more.
The karst of the horsts of the Bakony Region belonging to horst types of different development is described. Horsts elevated to the summit position are characterised by the most widespread and diverse karstification (with covered karst, cave-ins and shafts). Cryptopeneplains affect the karstification of horsts elevated to the summit position, but karst features also occur in their areas. On threshold surfaces of marginal position, the hypogene branches of regional flow systems influenced the development of spring caves. The karstification of basaltic mountains has been mainly governed by the properties of the basalt caprock (the major features being ponors with blind valleys and caprock dolines). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Land System and Sustainable Development)
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