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Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Welding and Joining".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 20309

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Dr. Dmitry A. Chinakhov

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Guest Editor

Siberian State Industrial University, 654007 Novokuznetsk, Russia
Interests: steel; welding; properties; additive technologies; alloys; structure; control; gas dynamics; heat distribution

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since the beginning of the third millennium, welding has remained as one of the leading technological processes for the creation of the material basis of modern civilization—technics.

Welding is used to achieve permanent joints between a wide range of metallic, non-metallic and composite structural materials in the conditions of the Earth's atmosphere, the world’s oceans and outer space. The use of light alloys, polymeric materials and composites in modern structures and products is constantly increasing, but steel remains the main structural material.

Welding processes proceed according to complex physical and chemical laws at high temperatures, and the combination of various factors and phenomena determines the quality of welded joints. To improve the operational reliability of welded structures, new equipment and technologies for controlling the properties of welded joints are constantly being developed, new additive technologies using welding equipment and welding methods, and the multidisciplinarity and hybridity of welding technologies with other types of production continuously increasing.

In this Special Issue of the Metals journal, we welcome reviews and articles aiming to obtain new theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of welding, additives and related technologies.

Dr. Dmitry A. Chinakhov
Guest Editor

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Keywords

steel
welding
properties
additive technologies
alloys
structure
control

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 162 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints

by Dmitry A. Chinakhov

Metals 2023, 13(11), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13111873 - 10 Nov 2023

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Since the beginning of the third millennium, welding has remained one of the leading technological processes for the creation of the material basis of modern civilization [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

Research

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14 pages, 9625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Beam Shape on the Microstructures and Mechanical Properties during Thin-Foil Laser Welding

by Danbi Song, Ryoonhan Kim, Kwangdeok Choi, Dongsig Shin and Sujin Lee

Metals 2023, 13(5), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050916 - 08 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2787

Abstract

In this study, a fiber laser at a wavelength of 1070 nm with different beam shapes (spot, dough-nut, and spot-wobble) was used to weld thin 316 L stainless steel foils. The welding speed was varied from 400 to 1000 mm/s in the absence of shielding gas. The weld geometry, microstructure, lap shear strength, and crystallographic grain structure of the micro-joints were analyzed and correlated with the beam shape and welding speed. The results indicate that the laser beam shape significantly affected the weld width and penetration depth, and the best welding speed was 500 mm/s. This study proved for the first time that a spot-wobble laser beam could achieve better mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics than a doughnut beam during the high-power laser welding of thin-foil stainless steel plates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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33 pages, 12411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure, Phase Composition, and Mechanical Properties of a Layered Bimetallic Composite ER70S-6-ER309LSI Obtained by the WAAM Method

by Yury Kabaldin, Dmitrii Shatagin, Dmitrii Ryabov, Alexander Solovyov and Andrey Kurkin

Metals 2023, 13(5), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050851 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1924

Abstract

Currently, additive manufacturing technologies for materials and products are being implemented and improved. This is due to the possibility of creating workpieces with complex geometric shapes and specified functional gradient properties. The materials with the most complex functional properties demanded by the military–energy industry include bimetals of the “low-alloyed carbon steel—stainless chromium-nickel steel” type. One of the promising ways to obtain bimetallic products is the WAAM (Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing) technology. Despite the large scientific groundwork, the composition, structure, and properties of bimetallic composites produced by WAAM have not been sufficiently studied. The aim of the current work is to study the effect of WAAM parameters and the subsequent heat treatment on the composition, structure, and physical and mechanical properties of the bimetallic composite “ER70S-6-R309LSI”. Spectral, metallographic, and X-ray diffraction studies were carried out, as were mechanical tests of the samples obtained under various WAAM modes. In order to improve the composites’ properties, various types of heat treatments were applied. It is shown that the WAAM modes, the building strategy, and heat treatment determine the structure of layers and transition zones, as well as the mechanical characteristics of the composite. The structure of ER70S-6 in the composite is represented by the ferrite and the ferrite–cementite mixture (pearlite), and ER309LSI is represented by different ratios of austenite, δ-ferrite, carbide, and intermetallic phases. From the point of view of the mechanical properties, the most promising mode of surfacing is “Double Pulse”, followed by heat treatment by way of austenitization and normalization annealing. In this case, there is a decrease in the content of the δ-ferrite, a leveling of microhardness values, and a 40% increase in the tensile strength of the composite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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12 pages, 2010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Welding Mode Parameters on the Operational Properties of Flexible Compensating Elements Made of Austenitic Stainless Steels

by Vitaliy Petrovich Ivanov, Elena Vladimirovna Lavrova, Fedor Viktorovich Morgay, Dmitry Pavlovich Ilyashenko and Viktoria Yuryevna Ivashchenko

Metals 2023, 13(2), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020423 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1608

Abstract

The paper investigates the effect of welding mode parameters on the uniformity of the deformation capacity of AISI 316 austenitic steel samples, namely, the influence of the welding current and purging gas consumption on the samples’ ability to perceive the force of cold cupping. Punch diameters of 3 and 8 mm were employed for the Erikson test to establish the dependence of the purge gas flow rate on the depth of the hole before the formation of cracks. The conducted metallographic studies confirmed an increase in the homogeneity of the dendritic structure in the weld zone due to the redistribution of heat input, as well as the absence of uneven grains and a decrease in the spread of grain sizes, which were in the range of 0.068–0.045 mm. The study resulted in determining the optimal range of technological parameters for the manufacture of flexible expansion elements to ensure their high operational properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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17 pages, 8876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structure and Properties of Al-Co-Cr-Fe-Ni High-Entropy Alloy Subjected to Electron–Ion Plasma Treatment

by Yurii Ivanov, Victor Gromov, Sergey Konovalov, Vladimir Shugurov, Mikhail Efimov, Anton Teresov, Elizaveta Petrikova, Irina Panchenko and Yulia Shliarova

Metals 2022, 12(11), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111987 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1654

Abstract

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are a new class of materials consisting of at least five elements in equiatomic or near-equiatomic ratio. HEAs are subjected to various types of surface treatment to improve their properties. One of the most promising methods of surface hardening is electron beam processing. This study aims to examine the structure, elemental, and phase composition of the AlCrFeCoNi HEA surface layer after the deposition of a (B + Cr) film and irradiation with a pulsed electron beam. HEA samples of non-equiatomic composition (33.4 Al; 8.3 Cr; 17.1 Fe; 5.4 Co; 35.7 Ni, at. %), fabricated by wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), were used as study objects. Modification of the HEA surface layer was carried out by a complex method combining deposition of (B + Cr) film samples on the surface and irradiation with a pulsed electron beam in an argon medium. The mode of modification was identified. It makes it possible to increase microhardness (almost two times) and wear resistance (more than five times), reduce the friction coefficient of the HEA surface layer by 1.3 times due to the decrease in the average grain size, formation of particles of borides and oxyborides of complex elemental composition, the introduction of boron atoms into the crystal lattice of HEA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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14 pages, 5282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Formation, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties of Ni-Cu Bimetallic Materials Produced by Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing

by Kseniya Osipovich, Denis Gurianov, Andrey Vorontsov, Evgeny Knyazhev, Alexander Panfilov, Andrey Chumaevskii, Nikolai Savchenko, Sergey Nikonov, Valery Rubtsov and Evgeny Kolubaev

Metals 2022, 12(11), 1931; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111931 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

The paper presents the results of applying wire-feed electron beam additive manufacturing technology to produce bimetallic samples of CuCr1 copper alloy and Udimet 500 nickel-based superalloy. Different printing strategies were used to obtain samples with a defect-free structure and high mechanical properties in the transition zone, not inferior to the strength of copper alloy. Two types of samples were fabricated with a sharp and smooth CuCr1/Udimet 500 interface. The printing strategies of type I and II samples differed in the combination and arrangement of nickel and copper alloy layers. Structural studies in the transition zone revealed mechanical mixtures of initial copper and nickel alloy components and solid solutions based on nickel, copper, and chromium. Despite the presence of defects and structural heterogeneities in the experimental samples, the mechanical properties of the main components are at a high level, corresponding to the typical properties of copper and nickel alloys. The strength of the transition zone in type II samples is between the strength of Udimet 500 and CuCr1. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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26 pages, 22212 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterizing the Tensile Behavior of Double Wire-Feed Electron Beam Additive Manufactured “Copper–Steel” Using Digital Image Correlation

by Vladimir Kibitkin, Andrey Vorontsov, Kseniya Osipovich, Nikolay Shamarin, Andrey Chumaevskii, Valery Rubtsov, Evgeny Moskvichev, Nickolai Savchenko and Evgeny Kolubaev

Metals 2022, 12(11), 1797; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111797 - 24 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1229

Abstract

The paper presents the results of the evaluation of the mechanical characteristics of samples of multi-metal “copper-steel” structures fabricated by additive double wire electron beam method. The global and local mechanical characteristics were evaluated using uniaxial tensile tests and full-field two-dimensional digital image [...] Read more.

(0.02 < ε \leq 0.08)

the formation of V-shaped shear lines occurs; at the second stage

(0.08 < ε \leq 0.15)

transverse shear lines lead to the formation of a block structure; at the third stage

(0.15 < ε \leq 0.21)

the plasticity resource ends in the central part of the two necks cracks are formed, and the main crack is the cause of the fracture of the joint. It is found that shear lines are formed first in copper and then propagate to steel. Electron microscopy proves that uniformly distributed iron particles could always be found in the “Fe-Cu” and “Cu-Fe” interfaces. Additionally, the evolution of average strain rates and standard deviations were measured (calculated) in the regions of necks in copper and steel regions. New shear approach shows that the most of angles for parallel shears components are ±45°, rupture angles are about 0°, and combined account of these two types of shears provides us additional discrete angles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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14 pages, 8087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of the Structure and Properties of Deposited Multilayer Specimens from Austenitic Steel under Various Heat Removal Conditions

by Dmitry A. Chinakhov and Kirill O. Akimov

Metals 2022, 12(9), 1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12091527 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1228

Abstract

The effect of side limiters (shaping blocks) on the formation of the structure and hardness of AISI 308LSi stainless steel workpieces obtained by multilayer build-up welding in an argon environment has been studied. The studies were carried out on specimens deposited using graphite limiters, copper limiters and without limiters. As a result of numerical simulation, it was found that the lowest temperatures of the specimen metal are observed when using copper limiters, and the highest when using graphite limiters (different thermal conductivity of materials) in comparison with the temperatures of the specimen obtained without limiters. With the use of graphite limiters, most of the specimen’s metal is in the temperature range of austenite formation (45%) and a more uniform growth of structural elements is observed, without sharp transitions between the deposited layers, in contrast to the other two types of specimens. The high value of the thermal conductivity of copper leads to an increase in the difference in the size of the dendrites between the central and peripheral side parts of the deposited specimen. The highest values of hardness are observed in the specimen obtained using graphite blocks, due to the more active diffusion of δ-ferrite into austenite by an average of 12%, compared with the other investigated specimens, despite the overall increase in size dendrites. The technology of electric arc multilayer build-up welding with the use of shaping graphite blocks makes it possible to produce a workpiece with a uniform structure and properties. The above makes it a promising direction in electric arc additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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14 pages, 3532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Corner Constraint on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloy Using the CMT+P Deposition Process

by Jie Su, Yue Yang, Yuanbo Bi, Yixuan Zhang, Jing Bi and Zhen Luo

Metals 2022, 12(9), 1423; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12091423 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1214

Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing technology with cold metal transfer and pulse welding (CMT+P) is a promising technology for fabricating complex metal structures. In this paper, a lot of basic research was conducted on the corner-constrained and unconstrained zones of 4043 aluminum alloy made using CMT+P. In particular, the microstructure morphology and mechanical properties of the corner-constrained and unconstrained zones of 4043 aluminum alloy made by CMT+P were studied by using a thermal field emission scanning electron microscope, a microhardness tester, etc. The results showed that there were cellular crystals at the top, columnar dendritic crystals in the middle and bottom, and smaller equiaxed crystals in the bottom center. The grain size in the corner-constrained zone was larger than that in the unconstrained zone, and the grain size increased by about 88.34%. Moreover, the microhardness of the unconstrained zone was 50 HV, while the microhardness of the corner-constrained zone was 45 HV. Furthermore, the tensile strength of this material was 148 MPa, the elongation was 31%, the fracture behavior in the middle and top areas was typical of a ductile fracture, and the fracture in the bottom area was a mixed ductile–brittle fracture dominated by the ductile fracture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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19 pages, 5147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Study and Investigations of Bead Geometries of GMAW-Based Wire–Arc Additive Manufacturing of 316L Stainless Steels

by Rakesh Chaudhari, Heet Parmar, Jay Vora and Vivek K. Patel

Metals 2022, 12(7), 1232; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071232 - 21 Jul 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2769

Abstract

Appropriate selection of wire–arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) variables imparts bead geometries with characteristics of multi-layer structures. Thus, the present study aimed to optimize the gas metal arc welding (GMAW)-based WAAM variables of travel speed (TS), wire feed speed (WFS), and voltage (V) for the bead geometries of bead width (BW) and bead height (BH) on an SS 316L substrate. Single-layer depositions were made through a metallic wire of SS 316L by following an experimental matrix of the Box–Behnken design (BBD) technique. Multivariable regression equations were generated for design variables and responses, and ANOVA was used to investigate the feasibility of the obtained regression equations. WFS was the highest contributor affecting the BW, followed by V and TS, while WFS was again the highest contributor affecting the BH, followed by TS and V. Heat transfer search (HTS) optimization was used to attain optimal combinations. The single-objective optimization result showed a maximum bead height and minimum bead width of 6.72 mm and 3.72 mm, respectively. A multi-layer structure was then fabricated by considering an optimization case study, and it showed optimized parameters at a WFS of 5.50 m/min, TS of 141 mm/min, and voltage of 19 V with the bead height and bead width of 5.01 mm and 7.81 mm, respectively. The multi-layered structure obtained at the optimized parameter was found to be free from disbonding, and seamless fusion was detected between the obtained layers of the structure. The authors believe that the present study will be beneficial for industrial applications for the fabrication of multi-layer structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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Review

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26 pages, 6925 KiB

Open AccessReview

Tribological, Corrosion, and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted Steel

by Alessandro M. Ralls, Merbin John, Jennifer Noud, Jose Lopez, Kasey LeSourd, Ian Napier, Nicholas Hallas and Pradeep L. Menezes

Metals 2022, 12(10), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12101732 - 16 Oct 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2100

Abstract

In additive manufacturing (AM), selective laser melting (SLM) is a relatively novel technique that utilizes thermal energy via laser beams to melt and solidify metallic powders into three-dimensional components. Compared to traditional manufacturing techniques, SLM is advantageous because it is more time-efficient, cost-effective, and allows for the fabrication of components with superior mechanical, tribological, and corrosion performances. However, much of the existing literature highlights the influence of SLM on softer materials such as aluminum or magnesium due to their thermal expansion coefficients rather than on materials such as steel. This review aims to encapsulate the existing literature on SLM steel and understand the factors that allow for its fabrication and the underlying mechanisms that dictate its mechanical, tribological, and corrosion performance. By understanding the trends of laser energy density (LED), scanning patterns, and building directions for these properties, a comprehensive understanding of SLM steel can be achieved. Additionally, through this understanding, the future directions of this research and suggestions will be provided to continue progressing the field in an impactful direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Technologies, Advanced Joining Technology and Study of Weld Joints)

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