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13 pages, 1889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Plastic Metals Considering Void Damage

by Jiaxing Zeng, Jianxiong Liu, Youdong Jia and Guolin Zhao

Metals 2023, 13(9), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13091566 - 06 Sep 2023

Viewed by 777

Abstract

Fracture initiation in plastic metals is attributed to the development of voids. Analyzing the nucleation and growth processes of voids facilitates the study of plastic deformation and fracture mechanisms in metal materials. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on two high-quality carbon structural steels, [...] Read more.

Fracture initiation in plastic metals is attributed to the development of voids. Analyzing the nucleation and growth processes of voids facilitates the study of plastic deformation and fracture mechanisms in metal materials. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on two high-quality carbon structural steels, and the microfracture surface morphology of the tensile specimens was observed by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). From the perspective of vacancy condensation, the nucleation mechanism of voids in the absence of inclusions or particles was analyzed. Based on the continuum damage mechanics theory and the Rice–Tracy (R-T) model, a damage parameter considering the void volume fraction was derived, and a plastic potential function, hardening curve, and constitutive model for the plastic deformation process of the plastic metal material were established. Based on the uniaxial tensile test data of the two sheets of high-quality carbon steel, the strain range data in the hardening stage were converted into true stress–plastic strain data, and the established hardening curve was used to fit the true stress–plastic strain data. The results showed good agreement between the established hardening curve and the experimental results, which effectively reflected the deformation process of ductile fractures in plastic metal materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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23 pages, 13100 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Quench and Tempered Embrittlement of Ultra-High-Strength Steels with Transition Carbides

by Roman Mishnev, Yuliya Borisova, Tatiana Kniaziuk, Sergey Gaidar and Rustam Kaibyshev

Metals 2023, 13(8), 1399; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13081399 - 05 Aug 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1092

Abstract

The effect of tempering after water quenching on the strength and fracture toughness of two steels with chemical compositions of 0.34%C-1.77%Si-1.35Mn-0.56%Cr-0.2%Mo-0.04%Nb-0.03Ti-0.002B and 0.44%C-1.81%Si-1.33%Mn-0.82%Cr-0.28%Mo was examined. The last steel exhibits quenching embrittlement in an as-quenched condition. At a tempering temperature of 280 °C, the [...] Read more.

The effect of tempering after water quenching on the strength and fracture toughness of two steels with chemical compositions of 0.34%C-1.77%Si-1.35Mn-0.56%Cr-0.2%Mo-0.04%Nb-0.03Ti-0.002B and 0.44%C-1.81%Si-1.33%Mn-0.82%Cr-0.28%Mo was examined. The last steel exhibits quenching embrittlement in an as-quenched condition. At a tempering temperature of 280 °C, the precipitation of transition η–Fe₂C carbides in martensitic matrix leads to increasing fracture toughness and eliminates quench embrittlement in the steel with 0.44 wt.%C. Tempered martensite embrittlement at 400 °C appears as decreased values of the Charpy V-notch impact energy, ductility and the product of strength and elongation, σ_B×δ (MPa×%) and is attributed to increased effective grain size for fracture, mainly. The precipitation of boundary cementite takes place at tempering at 500 °C and provides increased ductility and fracture toughness despite a decohesion along carbide/ferrite interfaces. The low severity of TME in Si-rich low-alloy medium carbon steels is attributed to the suppression of boundary cementite precipitation at tempering temperatures ≤400 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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28 pages, 5655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using an Internal State Variable Model Framework to Investigate the Influence of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties on Ballistic Performance of Steel Alloys

by Luke Peterson, Mark Horstemeyer, Thomas Lacy and Robert Moser

Metals 2023, 13(7), 1285; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071285 - 17 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1146

Abstract

An internal state variable (ISV)-based constitutive model has been used within a Lagrangian finite element analysis (FEA) framework to simulate ballistic impact of monolithic rolled homogenous armor (RHA) steel plates by RHA steel spheres and cylinders. The ISV model predictions demonstrate good agreement [...] Read more.

An internal state variable (ISV)-based constitutive model has been used within a Lagrangian finite element analysis (FEA) framework to simulate ballistic impact of monolithic rolled homogenous armor (RHA) steel plates by RHA steel spheres and cylinders. The ISV model predictions demonstrate good agreement with experimental impact data for spherical projectiles. A simulation-based parametric sensitivity study was performed to determine the influence of a variety of microstructural and mechanical properties on ballistic performance. The sensitivity analysis shows that the lattice hydrogen concentration, material hardness, and initial void volume fraction are dominant factors influencing ballistic performance. Finite element simulations show that variation of microstructure properties could explain the reduced ballistic performance of high hardness materials previously documented in the literature. The FEA framework presented in this work can be used to determine material properties conducive to ballistic-impact resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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15 pages, 4240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fracture Load Prediction of Non-Linear Structural Steels through Calibration of the ASED Criterion

by Marcos Sánchez, Sergio Cicero, Sergio Arrieta and Ali Reza Torabi

Metals 2023, 13(7), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071211 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 575

Abstract

In this work, the application of the Average Strain Energy Density (ASED) criterion for the estimation of failure loads in materials with nonlinear behavior containing U-shaped notches is presented. The ASED criterion was originally defined to predict failure in the presence of notches [...] Read more.

In this work, the application of the Average Strain Energy Density (ASED) criterion for the estimation of failure loads in materials with nonlinear behavior containing U-shaped notches is presented. The ASED criterion was originally defined to predict failure in the presence of notches in materials with linear-elastic behavior. However, most structural materials (e.g., ferritic-pearlitic steels) can develop non-linear behavior (e.g., elastoplastic). In this sense, this work proposes to extend the use of the ASED criterion to materials that exhibit plasticity by a thorough calibration of their characteristic parameters, and the subsequent extrapolation of the liner-elastic formulation of the ASED criterion to non-linear situations. To validate this methodology, a wide range of structural steels (S275JR, S355J2, S460M, and S690Q) were used operating in the ductile-to-brittle transition range, with six different notch radii (0 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.50 mm, 1.0 mm, and 2.0 mm). The results obtained demonstrate that the proposed calibration of the ASED criterion allows for accurate predictions of failure loads. Therefore, it is shown that, for the notch radii analyzed in this work and for testing temperatures within the material ductile-to-brittle transition range, it is possible to extrapolate the ASED criterion to obtain estimates of failure loads in materials with U-shaped notches that exhibit ductile behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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16 pages, 8680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of High-Cycle Fatigue Properties of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing 13Cr4Ni Martensitic Stainless Steel

by Guangfu Cheng, Haichao Li, Haiyan Dai, Hongming Gao and Jianchao Pang

Metals 2023, 13(7), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071210 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1047

Abstract

As one of the widely used materials for hydro turbine runners, 13Cr4Ni martensitic stainless steels (13/4 MSS) manufactured by forging and wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), respectively, were selected for high-cycle fatigue tests, and the effects of microstructures and defect characteristics on fatigue [...] Read more.

As one of the widely used materials for hydro turbine runners, 13Cr4Ni martensitic stainless steels (13/4 MSS) manufactured by forging and wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), respectively, were selected for high-cycle fatigue tests, and the effects of microstructures and defect characteristics on fatigue mechanism were investigated. The results indicate that compared to the forged 13/4 MSS, the microstructure of the WAAM test piece is very fine, and the martensite units, consequently, are smaller in size. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are 685 MPa and 823 MPa for the forged specimen and 850 MPa and 927 MPa for the WAAM specimens, respectively. The fatigue strength of 10⁷ cycles at room temperature is 370 MPa for forged specimens and 468 MPa for WAAM specimens. The predominant defect of the forged 13/4 MSS specimen is inclusion, and the fatigue initiates mainly at the surface and subsurface. While for the WAAM specimen, the most commonly found defects are pores, and the fatigue initiation is internal and at the subsurface. In addition, the fine microstructure, as well as the high strength and hardness, enable the WAAM material to have higher fatigue strength. In order to assess the effect of defects on fatigue performance, the stress intensity factor and El-Haddad model were adopted in the present study. It was found that the forged specimens with fish-eye (FIE) zones and the WAAM specimens with granular bright facet (GBF) zones have longer fatigue life. The fatigue strengths of the forged 13/4 MSS were therefore predicted by defect size. In contrast, the fatigue strengths of the WAAM 13/4 MSS were predicted by both defect and GBF sizes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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13 pages, 7074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evolution and Fracture Mechanism of 55NiCrMoV7 Hot-Working Die Steel during High-Temperature Tensile

by Yasha Yuan, Wenyan Wang, Ruxing Shi, Yudong Zhang and Jingpei Xie

Metals 2023, 13(6), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061056 - 31 May 2023

Viewed by 1052

Abstract

In this paper, through high-temperature tensile tests of 55NiCrMoV7 steel, high-temperature fracture behavior, microstructure evolution, and carbide distribution characteristics of both the thermal–mechanical coupling zone (fracture zone) and thermal stress zone (clamping zone) at different temperatures were studied. Intrinsic relationships between high-temperature fractures [...] Read more.

In this paper, through high-temperature tensile tests of 55NiCrMoV7 steel, high-temperature fracture behavior, microstructure evolution, and carbide distribution characteristics of both the thermal–mechanical coupling zone (fracture zone) and thermal stress zone (clamping zone) at different temperatures were studied. Intrinsic relationships between high-temperature fractures and carbide types, distribution and size were revealed, and evolution mechanisms of microstructure near cracks in 55NiCrMoV7 hot-working die steel during high-temperature deformation was clarified. Samples were stretched at different temperatures from 25 °C to 700 °C, and microscopic examinations were carried out using SEM and TEM. The results showed the following. With the increase in temperature, tensile strength and yield strength decreased, elongation and reduction of area increased, and fracture mode changed from brittle fracture to ductile fracture by transition temperature at about 400 °C. During high-temperature deformation, the grain dislocation density decreased and the tempered martensite decomposed, recovered, recrystallized, and then grain grew. M7C3 and M23C6 carbides precipitated and grew along the grain boundary, and a small amount of fine granular MC carbides was dispersed in the grain. The work done by the external force on the deformation zone would cause the temperature of it to be higher than the tensile temperature, which provides thermodynamic conditions for the redissolution of small carbides near the fracture zone and the grain growth of large carbides, resulting in a decrease in small carbides and increase in large carbides in thermal–mechanical coupling zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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20 pages, 3343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Predictive Damage-Tolerant Approach for Fatigue Life Estimation of Additive Manufactured Metal Materials

by Harry O. Psihoyos and George N. Lampeas

Metals 2023, 13(6), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061005 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1450

Abstract

Metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) allows the fabrication of intricate shaped parts that cannot be produced with conventional manufacturing techniques. Despite the advantages of this novel manufacturing technology, the main drawback is the inferior fatigue performance of AM metal materials and parts due to [...] Read more.

Metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) allows the fabrication of intricate shaped parts that cannot be produced with conventional manufacturing techniques. Despite the advantages of this novel manufacturing technology, the main drawback is the inferior fatigue performance of AM metal materials and parts due to the presence of process-induced defects that act as initial cracks. Reliable fatigue modeling methods that can assist the design and characterization of AM components must be developed. In this work, a computational damage-tolerance framework for the fatigue analysis of the AM metals and parts is presented. First, thermal modeling of the AM process for the part fabrication is performed to predict the susceptible areas for defect formation in the parts. From the processing of results, the characteristics of the critical defect are determined and used as input in a fracture mechanics-based model for the prediction of fatigue life of AM metals and parts. For validation purposes, the framework is utilized for the fatigue modeling and analysis of AM Ti-6Al-4V and 316L SS metals of relative experimental test cases found in the literature. The predicted results exhibit good correlation with the available experimental data, demonstrating the predictive capability of the modeling procedure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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Review

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25 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessReview

Influence of Organic Acids and Related Organic Compounds on Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel—A Critical Review

by Aqeel Abbas, Akeem Yusuf Adesina and Rami K. Suleiman

Metals 2023, 13(8), 1479; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13081479 - 17 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

Stainless steel is one of the most commonly used structural materials in industry for the transportation of liquids such as water, acids, and organic compounds. Corrosion is a major concern in industry due to the use of strong mineral acids, feedstock contamination, flow, [...] Read more.

Stainless steel is one of the most commonly used structural materials in industry for the transportation of liquids such as water, acids, and organic compounds. Corrosion is a major concern in industry due to the use of strong mineral acids, feedstock contamination, flow, aqueous environments, and high temperatures. Stainless steel is the most commonly used material in the petrochemical industry because of its characteristics of self-protectiveness, offered by thin passive oxides, and its metallurgical composition. However, chlorides and mineral acids attack the stainless steel continuously, consequently breaking down the passivation film, causing a continuous challenge from corrosion. The corrosion in stainless steel is influenced by many factors including flow rate, temperature, pressure, ethanol concentration, and chloride ion content. This review describes the impact of organic compounds and organic acids on the degradation behavior of stainless steel. The review also summarizes the commonly used organic compounds and their applications. It has been demonstrated that organic acid concentration, temperature, and halide impurities have significant effects on susceptibility to pitting corrosion by damaging the passivation film. The phenomenon of corrosion in stainless steel is quite different in immersion tests and electrochemical potentiodynamic polarization. This review article discusses the importance of organic compounds and their corrosion behavior on steel. The article also puts emphasis on the roles of corrosion inhibitors, monitoring methods, corrosion management, and forms of corrosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Fracture and Damage of Steels)

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