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Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 13860

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Dr. Hamzeh Mehrabi

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School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran 1417466191, Iran
Interests: sedimentary petrology and geochemistry; petroleum geology
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Dr. Vahid Tavakoli

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School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran 1417466191, Iran
Interests: reservoir geology; petrophysics; facies analysis; sequence stratigraphy
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Dear Colleagues,

Carbonate sedimentary sequences host large volumes of hydrocarbon and mineral deposits in almost all geographical settings. Comprehensive study of these sequences commonly includes five main subjects: (1) understanding their depositional environment thorough facies analysis and modeling; (2) unraveling their diagenetic history by the integration of petrographic and geochemical investigations; (3) sequence stratigraphic interpretations using sedimentological, paleontological, geochemical, geophysical, and petrophysical data; (4) fault and fracture analysis; and (5) geological correlations and modeling of carbonate sedimentary systems. In these subjects, various sources of data are used, including routine petrography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), well-logs analysis (formation evaluation), X-ray CT scanning, and a wide range of geochemical analyses (e.g., traditional and non-traditional stable isotopes and elemental contents (Fe, Mn, Sr, Na, Ca, Rb, Mg, etc.)). In addition to their economic importance, carbonate successions are a valuable archive of past environmental changes. Paleontological and geochemical studies of these records improve our understanding of biotic and abiotic responses to critical environmental changes that could help to a better understand of recent changes.

This Special Issue aims to contribute to the disclosure of high-quality research on carbonate sedimentary sequences in these five main categories. Case studies and reviews are both welcome.

Dr. Hamzeh Mehrabi
Dr. Vahid Tavakoli
Guest Editors

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Keywords

carbonate deposits
diagenesis
paleoenvironmental reconstruction
low-temperature (sedimentary) geochemistry
well-logs analysis (petrophysics)
fault and fracture analysis
sequence stratigraphy

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 133 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue: Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences

by Hamzeh Mehrabi and Vahid Tavakoli

Minerals 2024, 14(3), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14030269 - 3 Mar 2024

Viewed by 699

Abstract

The study of carbonate sequences encompasses a multifaceted exploration of depositional characteristics, diagenetic alterations, and geochemical variations that shape Earth’s geological history. [...] [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

Research

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21 pages, 6335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Dolomitization Mechanism of the Upper Ediacaran Qigebrak Formation, Northwestern Tarim Basin: Evidence from Petrography, Rare Earth Elements, and Clumped Isotope

by Pan Tang, Daizhao Chen, Shuangjian Li, Yuanzheng Wang, Moataz El-Shafeiy and Bo Yang

Minerals 2024, 14(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14010035 - 28 Dec 2023

Viewed by 838

Abstract

The deeply buried Upper Ediacaran Qigebrak Formation dolostones in the Tarim Basin are promising future hydrocarbon exploration targets in China. However, the origin of these pervasive matrix dolomites is not well understood, which hampers further hydrocarbon exploration. In this study, petrographic, isotopic (C, O, and Sr), rare earth element (REE), and clumped isotope analyses were performed to unravel the mechanisms of early dolomitization. Petrographic investigations indicate that the Qigebrak Formation carbonates were completely replaced by three distinct types of dolomites: (1) dolomicrite (MD-1), (2) fabric-preserving dolomite (MD-2), and (3) fabric-destructive dolomite (MD-3). Despite different crystal textures, these three dolomite types have a narrow range of δ¹³C and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values similar to those of coeval seawater. Furthermore, their seawater-normalized REE compositions display a seawater-like REE pattern with positive Ce anomalies. These findings suggest that the dolomitization fluids were seawater derived. From the clumped isotope temperature (T_Δ47 ≈ 60 °C) and the δ¹⁸O water values of the dolomitization fluids, it can be inferred that the main mechanism for the formation of matrix dolomites was seepage-reflux dolomitization by mesosaline to penesaline seawater in the evaporative environment. MD-1 and MD-2 precipitated from mesosaline to penesaline seawater in slightly evaporated settings. MD-3 was likely formed via recrystallization of MD-1 and/or MD-2 at a greater depth. This study provides an insight into early dolomitization processes related to mesosaline to penesaline seawater, which may make the origins of dolomite reservoirs with similar geological backgrounds better understood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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27 pages, 14053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pore-Type Characterization and Reservoir Zonation of the Sarvak Formation in the Abadan Plain, Zagros Basin, Iran

by Hamzeh Mehrabi, Fatemeh Karami, Nafiseh Fakhar-Shahreza and Javad Honarmand

Minerals 2023, 13(12), 1464; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121464 - 22 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1044

Abstract

Carbonate reservoirs are characterized by their complex depositional–diagenetic history and, consequently, intricate pore networks. In this study, pore types and reservoir zones of the Sarvak Formation, which is the second most important oil reservoir in Iran, are investigated by integrating core, thin-section, porosity–permeability, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) data. Depositional, diagenetic, and fracture pores are identified in macroscopic to microscopic scales. Frequency analysis of pore types revealed that diagenetic pores, including vuggy, moldic, intercrystalline, and fracture pores, formed the majority of pore spaces of the Sarvak Formation. They are dominantly recorded in the regressive systems tracts of both the Cenomanian and Turonian sequences, just below the paleoexposure surfaces. Away from the disconformities, there are two general trends regarding the pore-types distribution: (a) grain-supported facies of shoal and talus settings with dominant primary (depositional) pores including interparticle, intra-skeletal, and growth-framework pores, which are concentrated in the middle part of the formation, and (b) microporous mud-dominated facies with various types of primary and secondary pore types in the TSTs of third-order sequences, especially in the lower part of the Sarvak Formation. Stratigraphic modified Lorenz plot differentiated reservoir, speed, barrier, and baffle zones in this formation. Depositional–diagenetic characters, petrophysical properties, and dominant pore types are defined for each zone in a sequence stratigraphic framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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23 pages, 28707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagenetic Evolution of Upper Cretaceous Kawagarh Carbonates from Attock Hazara Fold and Thrust Belt, Pakistan

by Saif Ur Rehman, Muhammad Jawad Munawar, Mumtaz Muhammad Shah, Naveed Ahsan, Muhammad Kashif, Hammad Tariq Janjuhah, Vasiliki Lianou and George Kontakiotis

Minerals 2023, 13(11), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13111438 - 13 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 913

Abstract

A recent hydrocarbons discovery in 2021 in the Kawagarh Formation has brought attention to the significance of sedimentology and specifically diagenesis for understanding and characterizing the reservoir properties. The diagenetic history and multiscale processes that contributed to diagenesis were vaguely known. This study aimed to reconstruct various diagenetic phases, paragenetic sequences, and the interrelationship of these phases in the Kawagarh Formation. The diagenetic processes were identified and characterized through an integrated methodology utilizing the outcrop, petrographic, and geochemical analyses. Early calcite cementation was found to occur in the early stages of marine burial diagenesis involving pore fluid originating from the dissolution of aragonite in interlayer marl/mudstone beds and reprecipitating as microspar in adjacent limestone beds. The absence of mechanical compaction in wackstone and mudstone facies and the presence of late compaction in lithified packstones clearly imply that early calcite cementation occurred prior to compaction. Dolomitization with stylolites coupled with significant negative oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotope values implies a fault-related hydrothermal dolomitization model. Uplift introduced the fractures and low Mg fresh fluids to the system which caused calcitisation in shallow burial settings. The depleted δ¹³C and negative δ¹⁸O values indicate the mixing of surface-derived waters with hot burial fluids during the calcitization. This study offers valuable insights into several aspects related to the formation and the basin itself, including burial depths, fluid influx, and geochemical gradients. It also sheds light on the evolution of reservoir properties such as porosity and permeability in dolomitization fronts. Such insights can be used to gain a deeper understanding about the burial history, basin evaluation, and reservoir characterization for hydrocarbon exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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20 pages, 10990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrological, Geochemical and Chronological Characteristics of Dolomites in the Permian Maokou Formation and Constraints to the Reservoir Genesis, Central Sichuan Basin, China

by Xuejing Bai, Jianfeng Zheng, Kun Dai, Shuxin Hong, Junmao Duan and Yunmiao Liu

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101336 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 938

Abstract

The Middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Sichuan Basin has huge resources and is an important target for natural gas exploration. In recent years, significant exploration breakthroughs have been made in the dolomite field of member Mao-2 in central Sichuan, and the gas production of several wells has exceeded 1 × 10⁶ m³/d, indicating promising prospects for exploration. However, the origin of the dolomite reservoir in member Mao-2 remains ambiguous, which restricts the accurate prediction of favorable reservoirs. This study focuses on drilling in the Hechuan area as its research object, by using a detailed description of the cores from member Mao-2 of seven wells; samples were selected for tests of the degree of dolomite cation ordering, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions, strontium isotopic composition, rare earth elements, LA-ICP-MS element mapping and U-Pb dating. It is clarified that: (1) The crystalline dolomite of member Mao-2 in the Hechuan area is the main reservoir rock, and the heterogeneous vugs and fractures are the main reservoir space. The dolomite in member Mao-2 has been characterized by a low degree of cation ordering value (avg. 0.59), with values of δ¹³C (avg. 3.87‰), δ¹⁸O (avg. −7.15‰) and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (avg. 0.707474) having similar geochemical characteristics to Middle Permian seawater; the REEs normalized distribution patterns have similar characteristics to limestone; and the U-Pb age (261.0~262.0 Ma) corresponds to the age in the Capitanian stage of the Permian Guadalupian Series. (2) Petrological studies show that member Mao-2 has vertical karstification zonation characteristics; syngenetic karstification controls the formation of a large-scale fracture-cave system in the phreatic zone; the dolomitization of sediment in the fracture-cave system occurred during the penecontemporaneous period with locally restricted seawater. (3) The main controlling factors of the reservoir were syngenetic karstification, early dolomitization and hydrothermal dissolution related to Emei taphrogenesis. The research results are of great significance for dolomite reservoir prediction; the highlands of paleogeomorphology with syndepositional faults are favorable areas for dolomite reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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15 pages, 34538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sediment Texture, Geochemical Variation, and Ecological Risk Assessment of Major Elements and Trace Metals in the Sediments of the Northeast Persian Gulf

by Alireza Vaezi and Razyeh Lak

Minerals 2023, 13(7), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13070850 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1284

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of sediment texture along with geochemical variation, potential sources, and ecological risk assessment of major elements and trace metals in the bottom sediments of Iranian territorial waters situated in the northeast Persian Gulf. To achieve this, diverse laboratory methods, GIS techniques, statistical analyses, and index analysis approaches were employed. Over 50% of the sediment particles are mud, while one-third are sand-sized particles, primarily composed of skeletal fragments. The sediment’s elements concentrations were ranked in descending order as Ca > Al > Fe > Sr > Mn > Ba > Cr > Ni > V > Zn > Cu > Pb > As > Co > Mo > Cd. Cluster analysis revealed strong correlations among Al-Ni-Cr-V, Cd-Cu-Zn-Pb, Ba-Fe, silt-clay, and Ca-Sr. Calcium and strontium showed extremely severe enrichment due to high content of carbonate matter. Arsenic and Mo were significantly enriched, while Ba, V, Co, Zn, and Cu demonstrated moderate enrichment. Nevertheless, all the sampling stations were classified as having zero to very low levels of contamination, indicating a low potential ecological risk. Arsenic emerged as the primary contributor to the ecological risk index. Notably, no strong correlation was found between As, Mo, and other elements, indicating that As and Mo likely originate from distinct sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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31 pages, 34960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Facies, Depositional Environment and Reservoir Quality of an Early Cambrian Carbonate Ramp in the Tarim Basin, NW China

by Yongjin Zhu, Jianfeng Zheng, Jiankun Zhang, Xinsheng Luo, Guang Yu, Jun Li, Fangjie Hu and Guo Yang

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060791 - 10 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1209

Abstract

The Xiaoerbulake Formation in the Tarim Basin is considered one of the most important deep to ultradeep hydrocarbon reservoirs in the world. The objective of the present study is to analyze the facies, depositional environment and reservoir quality of the Early Cambrian Xiaoerbulake Formation in the Tarim Basin through integrated analysis of 120 m of cores, 3240 m of well cuttings, wireline logs and over 1100 thin sections from 17 exploration wells. Early Cambrian Xiaoerbulake Formation deposits in the Tarim Basin were deposited on a ramp setting. The ramp was occupied by seven facies associations and ten facies types ranging from the inner ramp to the outer ramp. These facies associations include tidal flat, lagoon, high-energy shoal, sabkha, inter-shoal, low-energy shoal and open shelf. Their distribution was controlled by paleogeographic patterns, sea level changes and the paleoclimate. Reservoir quality is considerably affected by facies together with diagenetic processes, including dolomitization and anhydrite cementation. High-quality reservoirs are found in the dolograinstone of high-energy shoal environments, which are favorable exploration facies in the carbonate ramp. Their pore space types consist of interparticle pores, intraparticle pores, intercrystalline pores, vuggy pores and moldic pores, with a porosity of 1.4%–7.5%. This study will help with our understanding of the stratigraphic framework, sedimentary-facies evolution and high-quality reservoir distribution of the Early Cambrian carbonate ramp in the Tarim Basin, facilitating exploration and the production of hydrocarbons from the Xiaoerbulake Formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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20 pages, 5626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of Dolomite Reservoir in Ediacaran Chigbrak Formation of Tarim Basin, NW China: Evidence from U–Pb Dating, Isotope and Element Geochemistry

by Jianfeng Zheng, Hui Wang, Anjiang Shen, Xianying Luo, Zhao Cheng and Kun Dai

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060725 - 25 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1299

Abstract

The Chigbrak Formation in the Upper Ediacaran is one of the important exploration targets in the Tarim Basin, NW China. However, no significant discoveries have been made in this field, and unclear reservoir genesis is one of the important factors restricting exploration breakthrough. This study examined the outcrops of the Aksu area in northwestern Tarim Basin by using systematic descriptions of petrologic features in the Upper Ediacaran Chigbrak Formation. Samples were selected for tests of stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions, strontium isotopic compositions, rare earth elements, LA–ICP–MS element mapping and U–Pb dating. It was found that (1) the Chigbrak Formation is mainly composed of dolomitic microbialite, with average values of δ¹³C (PDB), δ¹⁸O (PDB) and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 3.50‰, 2.95‰ and 0.709457, and has similar geochemical characteristics to the coeval seawater. The dolomites have also been characterized by a medium degree of cation ordering (avg. 0.68), a low content of ΣREEs (avg. 9.03 ppm) and a chondrite standardized curve of REEs showing enrichment of LREE and depletion of HREE. The U–Pb ages range from 538 to 618 Ma, corresponding to the age of Ediacaran period. (2) Dolomitization occurred in a marine diagenetic environment during the penecontemporaneous period, with seawater as the dolomitization fluid. (3) Vugs are the dominant pore type of Chigbrak Formation, and they are the products of the dissolution of meteoric water in penecontemporaneous period. (4) The main controlling factors of reservoir were lithofacies, meteoric water dissolution controlled by fourth– or fifth–order sequences and tectonic movement, and early dolomitization. The research results are of great significance to the dolomite reservoir prediction of the Upper Ediacaran Chigbrak Formation of the Tarim Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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20 pages, 4504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Results of the Study of Epigenetic Changes of Famennian–Tournaisian Carbonate Rocks of the Northern Marginal Shear Zone of the Caspian Syneclise (Kazakhstan)

by Valeriy Korobkin, Akhan Chaklikov, Zhamal Tulemissova, Iskander Samatov and Yelena Dobrovolskaya

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020249 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1243

Abstract

Various genetic and morphological types of voids in carbonate reservoirs make it difficult to diagnose them, which can be seen in the determination of reservoir properties in the northern marginal shear zone of the Caspian Syneclise. A macro- and microscopic study of rocks was carried out by staining carbonates in thin sections with alizarin (determination of the mineral composition, structure, texture, void and fracture spaces, rock genesis). Instrumental methods (X-ray, DTA—differential thermal analysis, TGA—thermo-gravimetric analysis, and probe microanalysis) established the composition of rocks, the nature of their diagenetic transformations, and the formation of void space. The elemental and oxide composition of a number of samples was carried out using the X-ray probe microanalysis method, and mineral formations with intermediate thermochemical properties were found. The results of X-ray, DTA, and TGA measurements and the data of probe microanalysis made it possible to reveal thermally inert formations of oxides of calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, and other compounds in the composition of carbonates. A relatively low-cost express method was used to determine the material composition and the nature of epigenetic changes and to obtain data on the void space as a result of the development of tectonic fracturing and diagenetic processes of leaching and secondary mineral formation in bedded carbonate reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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14 pages, 46903 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Diagenesis in the Lacustrine Ostracods from the Songliao Basin 91.35 Million Years Ago and Its Geological Implications

by Zhenwu Liu, Yuke Liu, Xuejia Du, Dan Lyu, Huaichun Wu and Huajian Wang

Minerals 2023, 13(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010005 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1552

Abstract

Diagenesis is a double-edged sword of geochemical recordings. It makes us always doubt about the representativeness of many geochemical indicators, especially the isotope and mineral related. It also provides a window to explore the biogeochemical processes at the water–rock interface, which are related to the interactions between the hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. In this study, we identified microbial early diagenesis in lacustrine ostracods from the Songliao Basin 91.35 million years ago by using in situ mineralogical and carbon isotope analytical methods. Our results suggest multiple biological early-diagenesis processes and the formation of a ferric and methane transition zone (FMTZ) in the sulfate-poor pore water, which are conducive to the formation of dolomite and ankerite. These secondary carbonate minerals related to dissimilatory iron reduction and methanogenesis have heavier carbon isotopic compositions than the calcified ostracod shell in the water column and might bring interferences to the geochemical parameters of ostracods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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Review

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28 pages, 23841 KiB

Open AccessReview

Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Upper Cretaceous Carbonates (Sarvak Formation) in the Zagros Basin and the Persian Gulf, Iran

by Hamzeh Mehrabi

Minerals 2023, 13(8), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13081078 - 13 Aug 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1463

Abstract

Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks of the Sarvak Formation are among the most important hydrocarbon reservoirs of the Middle East. This paper summarizes the depositional history, diagenetic alteration, and geochemistry of this formation in south and southwest Iran. The combined effects of tectonic activities and the paleoclimate had remarkable control over the depositional–diagenetic evolution of this formation. Large changes in facies types, their frequency, and thickness were recorded across the study area and attributed to the tectonic activities. The complex diagenetic history of this formation includes minor marine, intensive meteoric, and burial diagenesis. Two pronounced paleoexposure events were recorded at the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary (CT-ES) and the middle Turonian (mT-ES), which are associated with remarkable changes in facies and diagenetic characteristics and special geochemical trends. Elemental (Mg, Fe, Rb, Mn, Sr), isotopic (carbon, oxygen), and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios provide useful tools for delineating the paleoexposure surfaces, their associated diagenetic alterations, and chemo-sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Variable exposure durations resulted in immature to over-matured karstified profiles below the CT-ES and mT-ES, respectively. Meteorically dissolved rudist-dominated facies provided the best reservoir zone of the Sarvak Fm. in the regressive systems tract of the Cenomanian sequence, just below the CT-ES. Microporous and dolomitized mud-dominated facies formed the second important reservoir intervals, especially within the transgressive systems tracts. The results of this study revealed that the reservoir characteristics of the Sarvak Fm. were considerably controlled by paleoexposure events and, therefore, it can be considered as a typical paleokarst hydrocarbon reservoir in Iran. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deposition, Diagenesis, and Geochemistry of Carbonate Sequences)

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