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Rickettsia and Ehrlichia of Veterinary and Public Health Importance in Ticks Collected from Birds in the Great Plains of the United States
The Role of Blastocystis spp. in the Etiology of Gastrointestinal and Autoimmune Diseases
Q Fever-Related Community Infections: United States Exposure to Coxiella burnetii
Microbiological Risks to Health Associated with the Release of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and β-Lactam Antibiotics Through Hospital Wastewater
The Epithelial Immune Response to Human Papillomavirus Infection

Journal Description

Pathogens

Pathogens is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on pathogens and pathogen-host interactions published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Embase, PubAg, CaPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Microbiology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Infectious Diseases)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Pathogens include: Parasitologia and Bacteria.

Impact Factor: 3.3 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.6 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2076-0817

Latest Articles

7 pages, 4990 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Characterization of a New HIV-1 Second-Generation Circulating Recombinant Form CRF173_63A6 in the Jewish Autonomous Region of Russia

by Vasiliy E. Ekushov, Maksim R. Halikov, Alexei V. Totmenin, Mariya E. Antonets, Tatyana V. Tregubchak, Andrey I. Murzin, Marina N. Pavlova, Anastasia M. Troianova, Tatyana P. Adusheva, Svetlana N. Beniova, Alexandra S. Ermolitskaya, Irina S. Gorelova, Alexander P. Agafonov and Natalya M. Gashnikova

Pathogens 2025, 14(9), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14090836 - 22 Aug 2025

Studies of HIV-1 molecular epidemiology describe significant differences in HIV infection spread across geographical areas. We examined 80 HIV-1 samples from the Jewish Autonomous Region of Russia in 2024. HIV-1 genome sequences for 12 samples revealed a novel HIV-1 called CRF173_63A6. HIV-1 CRF173_63A6 [...] Read more.

Studies of HIV-1 molecular epidemiology describe significant differences in HIV infection spread across geographical areas. We examined 80 HIV-1 samples from the Jewish Autonomous Region of Russia in 2024. HIV-1 genome sequences for 12 samples revealed a novel HIV-1 called CRF173_63A6. HIV-1 CRF173_63A6 was found to have arisen through recombination between a specific Russian A6 subtype and the recombinant virus CRF63_02A6, which is responsible for the PWID-associated HIV outbreak in the Siberian region of Russia. Phylogenetic analysis of pol sequences previously deposited in Genbank showed that the CRF173_63A6 samples we described are grouped into a common phylogenetic cluster that includes 54 HIV-1 samples isolated in the JAR and other areas of the Russian Far East, indicating a wide distribution of this virus genovariant. This study once again proves the significant contribution of the key PWID group not only to the development of local Russian HIV epidemics, but also to the change in the characteristics of the circulating virus population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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14 pages, 1083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recent HIV Infections in Italy: Data from the HIV National Surveillance System, 2012–2023

by Barbara Suligoi, Vincenza Regine, Lucia Pugliese and Claudio Galli

Pathogens 2025, 14(9), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14090835 - 22 Aug 2025

The identification of recent HIV infections among newly diagnosed HIV cases is relevant to both implementing targeted prevention measures and estimating HIV incidence. We analyzed data on new HIV diagnoses in Italy from 2012 to 2023. We selected cases that were tested by [...] Read more.

The identification of recent HIV infections among newly diagnosed HIV cases is relevant to both implementing targeted prevention measures and estimating HIV incidence. We analyzed data on new HIV diagnoses in Italy from 2012 to 2023. We selected cases that were tested by at least one of three criteria (test for HIV recency, data on HIV seroconversion, clinical signs of acute HIV infection) to assess the rate of recent (<1 year) HIV infections. We analyzed these cases by gender, age group, nationality, and mode of transmission, and revaluated cases that were initially scored as a late diagnosis but then classified as a recent infection. Out of 36,289 new HIV diagnoses, 17,558 (48.8%) were tested for recent infection by at least one criterion and 3772 (21.5%) were classified as recent. At multivariate analysis, the probability of being recently infected was significantly higher among males, people aged 15–44 years, Italians, individuals diagnosed in Northern and Central Italy, heterosexual males, MSM, and people with a CD4 count ≥ 350 cells/uL at diagnosis. Of 8658 cases initially classified as late diagnoses, 979 (11.3%) were reclassified as recent by the aforementioned criteria. Monitoring recent infections among new HIV diagnoses is beneficial to individuals—because it motivates recently infected people to comply with antiretroviral treatment (which is more effective if started early) and to collaborate to partner notification, and to public health, as it provides evidence of epidemiological changes and stresses the need for targeted prevention in well-defined populations at risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging/Re-Emerging Viruses and Antiviral Drug Design)

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22 pages, 11866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Mechanism of RuHaoDaShi Granules in Treating H1N1 Viral Pneumonia Based on Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

by Aixin Chen, Tianhang Chen, Yu He, Jiehong Yang and Haitong Wan

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080834 - 21 Aug 2025

Objective: This study aims to investigate the pharmacodynamic effects and underlying mechanisms of the Chinese herbal formula RuHaoDaShi (RHDS) granules against the influenza virus in experimental models. Methods: This study aims to employ network pharmacology to identify the active components of RHDS and [...] Read more.

Objective: This study aims to investigate the pharmacodynamic effects and underlying mechanisms of the Chinese herbal formula RuHaoDaShi (RHDS) granules against the influenza virus in experimental models. Methods: This study aims to employ network pharmacology to identify the active components of RHDS and its potential targets and mechanisms of action against H1N1. The molecular docking approach validated the interactions between the core targets and the RHDS compounds. In vitro, the antiviral activity of RHDS was assessed by therapeutic, prophylactic, and premixed administration to H1N1-infected A549 cells. An in vivo experiment was conducted using a mouse H1N1 pneumonia model. The model was treated with a dose of 1.04, 2.08, and 4.16 g/kg of RHDS, administered via gavage daily. The study’s objective was to evaluate the antiviral activity and mechanism of action of RHDS in mice. Mice were evaluated on day 6 by assessing survival, viral load (RT-qPCR), lung pathology (HE staining), inflammatory cytokines (ELISA, immunohistochemistry), and ferroptosis markers (WB, qPCR). Results: Network pharmacology identified 77 biologically active RHDS compounds (e.g., quercetin and kaempferol) and 32 core targets common to RHDS, H1N1, and ferroptosis. Molecular docking was used to verify a high affinity for binding between the core targets HIF-1α, MAPK3, and key RHDS compounds. In vitro studies demonstrated that RHDS exhibited protective properties against H1N1-infected cells, with the therapeutic delivery method proving the most efficacious. In vivo studies have shown that RHDS reduces mortality, lung index, and viral load in mice while attenuating histopathological damage. The study demonstrated a reduction in the release of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IFN-γ, and IL-17A, and decreased expression levels of MPO and F4/80 proteins in lung tissue. Mechanistically, the administration of RHDS resulted in the up-regulation of the expression levels of GPX4, SLC7A11, and Nrf2 proteins while concomitantly inhibiting the expression of HIF-1α, COX2, and ACSL4. These findings confirm the modulatory effect of RHDS on the GPX4/SLC7A11/Nrf2 pathway. Conclusions: RHDS demonstrated a protective effect against H1N1-induced cytopathy in vitro and was effective in attenuating H1N1-induced pneumonia in murine models. The study suggests that RHDS has antiviral potential to treat H1N1 viral pneumonia by modulating inflammatory cytokines and the GPX4/SLC7A11/Nrf2 pathway. Full article

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10 pages, 851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Introduction and Spatial–Temporal Distribution of Oropouche Virus in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil

by Fábio Burack da Costa, Andrea Cony Cavalcanti, Rafael Santos Erbisti, Vanessa Zaquieu Dias, Cristiane Gomes de Castro Moreira, Mateus Marques Grifo, Maria Carmelita dos Santos Vaz, Adriana Cardoso Camargo, Leandro Magalhães de Souza, Flávia Barreto dos Santos, Mário Sérgio Ribeiro, Viviana Malirat, Nildimar Alves Honório and Renata Campos Azevedo

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 833; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080833 - 21 Aug 2025

The Oropouche virus (OROV) has been circulating in the Amazon region since the 1960s, with a progressive increase in outbreaks and human cases reported in Brazil and neighboring countries. In the Rio de Janeiro state, there has been a significant rise in suspected [...] Read more.

The Oropouche virus (OROV) has been circulating in the Amazon region since the 1960s, with a progressive increase in outbreaks and human cases reported in Brazil and neighboring countries. In the Rio de Janeiro state, there has been a significant rise in suspected cases of arboviruses, with only 30% of laboratory tests confirming infections with dengue, Zika, or chikungunya viruses. The investigation of OROV virus circulation in the Rio de Janeiro state was initiated and confirmed in April 2024. Our study aimed to retrospectively investigate OROV infections in dengue-suspected cases with inconclusive diagnosis in order to better understand the temporal and geographic introduction of OROV in the Rio de Janeiro state. Municipalities from Rio de Janeiro with arbovirus-like fever cases but a low percentage of dengue-positive RT-PCR test confirmations were identified in the laboratory database. Samples were selected for testing OROV infections using real-time RT-PCR as recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health. Municipalities in the Middle Paraíba region of the state showed 93% negative tests results for dengue, Zika, and chikungunya starting in September 2023. A total of 118 positive cases of Oropouche were recorded in the state of Rio de Janeiro between March and July 2024. Moreover, by genome sequencing of eight strains, it was shown that OROV circulating in Rio de Janeiro belongs to recently emergent M₁L₂S₂ lineage. Our findings retrospectively revealed a concentration of cases in the Middle Paraíba region and an outbreak in the rural village of Cacaria, located in the municipality of Piraí. According to our data, this region is the first area with sustained transmission in the Rio de Janeiro state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Arboviruses: Epidemiology, Control, and Future Directions)

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19 pages, 1910 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hansen’s Disease in Ecuador: Current Status, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Priorities: A Literature Review

by Manuel Calvopiña, Juan S. Izquierdo-Condoy, Esteban Ortiz-Prado, Jorge Vasconez-Gonzalez, Lorena Vaca and Elías Guamán

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080832 - 21 Aug 2025

Background: Hansen’s disease or leprosy is one of the 21 neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). In Ecuador, leprosy is considered eliminated as a public health problem; however, new cases are reported annually. Additionally, Mycobacterium leprae infection was detected in nine-banded armadillos across the country, [...] Read more.

Background: Hansen’s disease or leprosy is one of the 21 neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). In Ecuador, leprosy is considered eliminated as a public health problem; however, new cases are reported annually. Additionally, Mycobacterium leprae infection was detected in nine-banded armadillos across the country, suggesting a potential zoonotic reservoir. This literature review aims to provide an updated overview of the epidemiological situation of leprosy in Ecuador, identify knowledge gaps, and outline research priorities to support the development of a comprehensive national strategy for achieving zero autochthonous cases. Methods: This article analyses the current situation of leprosy in Ecuador based on international and national publications. A retrospective literature search using five international, regional, and national publications on leprosy published between 1954 and 2024 (70 years) with no restriction on language or publication date, was performed. Findings: Our review identified 28 publications with the earliest article dating back to 1954. Of these, 14 were published in international journals, 15 (53.6%) were in Spanish. Four nationwide studies documented leprosy cases across Ecuador’s three continental regions (Coast, Andes, and Amazon) with a predominance in the tropical coast. No cases have been reported from the Galápagos Islands. From 1983, Ecuador started multi-drug therapy. Data from the Ministry of Public Health (MoH) system identified 1539 incident cases, showing a significant decline in new cases from 2000 to 2024, with no cases in children. New cases detection rate by 100,000 inhabitants was 0.51 in 2019 according to the World Health Organization (WHO). No study has genotyped the Mycobacterium spp. in human cases, other animal species, or environment. According to the MoH, multibacillary leprosy accounts for 78.95% of diagnosed cases, with confirmation based on Ziehl–Neelsen staining and histopathology. No survey has assessed disabilities, knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) or stigma related to leprosy. Research is needed on transmission routes, Mycobacterium genotyping, genetic susceptibility, and antibiotic resistance. BCG vaccination coverage fell to 75.3% in 2021. Cases are currently diagnosed and treated on an outpatient basis in large hospitals. Conclusions: This comprehensive review highlights persistent gaps in leprosy research and critical information, despite seven decades of documented cases in Ecuador. The disease is still endemic across the country, particularly at subnational level in the subtropics and tropics of the Pacific coast and the Amazon. There is a need for nationwide epidemiological research on reservoirs and the environment applying the One Health concept. Increased laboratory facilities and readily available official data are required to improve our understanding of leprosy in Ecuador. Strengthening community-level efforts is essential for Ecuador to meet the targets of the “WHO’s Towards Zero Leprosy: Strategy 2021–2030.” Full article

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11 pages, 525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to Zoliflodacin and Quinolones in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan

by Takashi Yurube, Katsumi Shigemura, Yurino Kobayashi, Taishi Maeda, Nami Nishimura, Ayaka Yamada, Kotoko Kotani, Saki Horii, Hiroyuki Yoshida and Kayo Osawa

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080831 - 21 Aug 2025

The DNA synthesis inhibitor zoliflodacin (ZFD) is expected to be effective against strains resistant to therapeutic agents for Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. In addition to ZFD, we investigated the susceptibility of N. gonorrhoeae strains to ceftriaxone (CTRX), ciprofloxacin (CPFX), garenoxacin (GRNX), and sitafloxacin (STFX). [...] Read more.

The DNA synthesis inhibitor zoliflodacin (ZFD) is expected to be effective against strains resistant to therapeutic agents for Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. In addition to ZFD, we investigated the susceptibility of N. gonorrhoeae strains to ceftriaxone (CTRX), ciprofloxacin (CPFX), garenoxacin (GRNX), and sitafloxacin (STFX). Minimum inhibitory concentration values for ZFD and four other drugs were determined for 147 strains of N. gonorrhoeae isolated at medical institutions in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, from 2015 to 2022. Amino acid alterations in gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE were examined by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing analysis. Sequence type (ST) was determined for epidemiological analysis, and N. gonorrhoeae strains were classified. The non-susceptibility rate was not observed in CTRX. The lowest non-susceptibility rate was observed in ZFD (39.5%) compared to CPFX (80.3%), GRNX (83.7%), and STFX (65.3%) (all p < 0.0001). The most common amino acid alterations in gyrA and parC had non-susceptibility rates exceeding 80% to quinolones except ZFD, suggesting that these alterations may have influenced the resistance trend. STs were different between isolates in 2015 and those in 2020 and later. ZFD showed potent antimicrobial activity against N. gonorrhoeae strains that are highly resistant to quinolones. It may become a new option in the treatment of gonococcal infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Pathogenic Neisseria)

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17 pages, 1414 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Mechanistic Models of Virus–Bacteria Co-Infections in Humans: A Systematic Review of Methods and Assumptions

by Mani Dhakal, Brajendra K. Singh and Rajeev K. Azad

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080830 - 21 Aug 2025

Background: Viral–bacterial co-infections can amplify disease severity through complex biological mechanisms. Mathematical models are critical tools for understanding these threats, but it is unclear how well they capture the underlying biology. This systematic review addresses a central question: to what extent does the [...] Read more.

Background: Viral–bacterial co-infections can amplify disease severity through complex biological mechanisms. Mathematical models are critical tools for understanding these threats, but it is unclear how well they capture the underlying biology. This systematic review addresses a central question: to what extent does the current generation of models mechanistically represent co-infections, or do the mathematical assumptions underlying these models adequately represent the known biological mechanisms? Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, we systematically reviewed the literature on mechanistic models of human virus–bacteria co-infections. A systematic search of articles on the scientific literature repositories PubMed, Scopus, and Dimensions was conducted and data on study objectives, model structure, assumptions about biological interactions (e.g., susceptibility, mortality), control measures (if evaluated), and the empirical sources used for key parameters were extracted. Results: We identified 72 studies for inclusion in this analysis. The reviewed models are consistently built on the established premise that co-infection alters disease severity and host susceptibility. However, we found they incorporate these dynamics primarily through high-level mathematical shortcuts, such as applying static “multiplicative factors” to transmission or progression rates. Our quantitative analysis also revealed questionable approaches; for example, 79% (57) of these studies relied on non-empirical sources (assumed or borrowed values) for parameter values including interaction parameters (e.g., increased susceptibility to a secondary pathogen following primary infection, or elevated mortality rates in co-infected individuals). Conclusions: An apparently unjustified practice exists in co-infection modeling, where complex biological processes are simplified to fixed numerical assumptions, often without empirical support. This practice limits the predictive reliability of current models. We identify an urgent need for data-driven parameterization and interdisciplinary collaboration to bridge the gap between biological complexity and modeling practice, thereby enhancing the public health relevance of co-infection modeling. Full article

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10 pages, 602 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Infective Endocarditis by Fusobacterium Species—A Systematic Review

by Petros Ioannou, Eleni Mourati, Styliani Thalasseli Kazali, Chrysoula Bali, Stella Baliou and George Samonis

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080829 - 21 Aug 2025

Background: Fusobacterium species are anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli that are part of the normal oropharyngeal and gastrointestinal flora. Although rare, they can cause infective endocarditis (IE), a severe condition with high morbidity. The clinical characteristics, treatment strategies, and outcomes of IE caused by Fusobacterium [...] Read more.

Background: Fusobacterium species are anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli that are part of the normal oropharyngeal and gastrointestinal flora. Although rare, they can cause infective endocarditis (IE), a severe condition with high morbidity. The clinical characteristics, treatment strategies, and outcomes of IE caused by Fusobacterium spp. remain incompletely defined. This systematic review aimed to synthesize available data on Fusobacterium IE and compare its features with IE caused by other pathogens. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library up to 27 February 2025, using the terms “Fusobacterium” and “endocarditis.” Eligible studies included case reports or series describing adult or pediatric patients with Fusobacterium-associated IE. Data were extracted on demographics, risk factors, clinical features, microbiology, treatment, and outcomes. Results: A total of 21 studies (all case reports) involving 21 patients were included. The median age was 48 years, and 85.7% were male. Poor dental hygiene or recent dental work was the most common predisposing factor (47.6%). The mitral valve was most frequently affected (44.4%). Fever and sepsis were reported in nearly all cases, and embolic phenomena occurred in 81%. The most commonly isolated species were F. necrophorum (47.6%) and F. nucleatum (42.9%). Treatment commonly included metronidazole (61.9%), while surgical management was required in 23.8%. All-cause and infection-attributable mortality were both 9.5%. Conclusions: Fusobacterium IE predominantly affects younger males and is often linked to oral sources. This disease is associated with a high risk of systemic complications but seems to have a lower mortality compared to IE from other pathogens, including other anaerobic bacteria. Early diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial treatment are of utmost importance for optimal outcomes. Further research is required to guide evidence-based management of this rare but serious infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Research on Bloodstream Infections)

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16 pages, 297 KiB

Open AccessReview

Host Immune Response in Chronic Hepatitis Delta: Implications for Pathogenesis and Therapy

by Arshi Khanam, Abutaleb Ameer, Poonam Mathur, Cihan Yurdaydin and Shyam Kottilil

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080828 - 21 Aug 2025

Chronic hepatitis delta (CHD) represents the most severe form of viral hepatitis due to rapid disease progression towards liver cancer, leading to high morbidity and mortality. Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) can only infect individuals who are infected with hepatitis B. So far, there [...] Read more.

Chronic hepatitis delta (CHD) represents the most severe form of viral hepatitis due to rapid disease progression towards liver cancer, leading to high morbidity and mortality. Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) can only infect individuals who are infected with hepatitis B. So far, there is no cure or vaccine for HDV. Existing treatment options, including pegylated interferon-α and hepatocyte entry inhibitors, offer limited efficacy. Emerging therapeutic strategies are focused on targeting various steps of the HDV life cycle or enhancing the host immune response to promote viral elimination. A defective antiviral immune response is increasingly recognized as a culprit for HDV persistence; however, the precise immunological mechanism associated with disease progression and pathogenesis has not been well defined. This review provides an update on the current understanding of host immune response in CHD, highlighting its role in both disease pathogenesis and viral clearance. A deeper understanding of these immune correlates may lead the way to novel treatment strategies, including immunotherapies targeting host immune response that can be used in combination with other antiviral therapies to achieve more effective and durable treatment outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Hepatitis and Therapeutic Strategies)

10 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Urine of Individuals Vaccinated with Janssen AD26.COV2.S COVID-19 Vaccine

by Marina F. N. Melo, Rômulo C. D. Lira, Raquel S. B. Câmara, Isabela A. G. Pereira, Fernanda F. Ramos, Carolina S. F. Costa, Laura F. Amorim, Quezia D. Teixeira, Flávio G. da Fonseca, Vandack Nobre, Flavia G. F. Ferreira, Jorge Pinto, Eduardo A. F. Coelho, Fernanda Ludolf and Júlia F. M. Caporali

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080827 - 21 Aug 2025

Urine-based immunoassay is a non-invasive method with demonstrated utility in detecting anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in unvaccinated patients with COVID-19. To evaluate urine’s potential for serological surveys in a real-world setting, SARS-CoV-2 serology was performed on urine samples from vaccinated individuals, both with and without [...] Read more.

Urine-based immunoassay is a non-invasive method with demonstrated utility in detecting anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in unvaccinated patients with COVID-19. To evaluate urine’s potential for serological surveys in a real-world setting, SARS-CoV-2 serology was performed on urine samples from vaccinated individuals, both with and without prior confirmed COVID-19. (1) Methods: An in-house indirect ELISA was used to measure antibodies against recombinant spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins of SARS-CoV-2 in urine and paired serum from 149 individuals vaccinated with Janssen AD26.COV2.S, an S protein-based COVID-19 vaccine. (2) Results: Anti-S and anti-N levels were higher in the urine and serum of participants with confirmed prior COVID-19 compared to those without prior infection. Urinary anti-S effectively distinguished vaccinated individuals with (AUC = 0.96) and without (AUC = 0.88) prior infection from negative controls (non-vaccinated, non-previously infected individuals) (p < 0.0001). Among vaccinated participants, urinary anti-S and anti-N identified prior infection, with AUC values of 0.73 (p < 0.0001) and 0.60 (p = 0.03), respectively, being recorded. (3) Conclusions: Findings indicate that urinary anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies reflect AD26.COV2.S vaccination and previous COVID-19. To further advance the methodology, studies with larger sample sizes and a greater diversity of COVID-19 vaccines are required. Full article

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18 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Investigation of the Antimicrobial Properties of Gerês Propolis in Bacteria Isolated from Companion Animals and Safety Profile Characterization Using the Galleria mellonella Model

by Rafael Rodrigues, Rui Almeida, Soraia C. V. Rodrigues, Joana Castro, Ricardo Oliveira, Nuno Mendes, Carina Almeida, Sónia Silva, Daniela Araújo and Cristina Almeida-Aguiar

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080826 - 21 Aug 2025

Propolis, also known as bee glue, is a natural resinous mixture produced by Western honeybees and has long been recognized for its potential therapeutic properties. Recent research has focused on its diverse bioactivities, particularly its antimicrobial effects against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, [...] Read more.

Propolis, also known as bee glue, is a natural resinous mixture produced by Western honeybees and has long been recognized for its potential therapeutic properties. Recent research has focused on its diverse bioactivities, particularly its antimicrobial effects against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including human but also animal pathogens. However, further investigation is required to fully elucidate the pharmacological properties and potential toxicity of propolis to support its broader application. This study investigated the antimicrobial efficacy and safety of an ethanol extract of Portuguese propolis collected from the Gerês region (G23.EE). The antimicrobial activity was assessed in vitro against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria associated with infections in companion animals, using the agar dilution method. To evaluate potential toxicity, the extract was administered via injection and topical application in an in vivo Galleria mellonella larval model, with health parameters monitored over a 96 hours period. The in vitro results showed that G23.EE was more effective against Gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus spp. (e.g., S. felis, S. hominis, S. simulans, and S. pseudintermedius; MIC = 0.5 mg/mL) and Enterococcus faecium (MIC = 1.5 mg/mL), than against Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella oxytoca (MIC > 8.0 mg/mL). No significant adverse effects were observed in G. mellonella larvae following injection or brushing with propolis extract concentrations up to 8.0 mg/mL. Overall, these findings suggest that Portuguese propolis from Gêres is a promising, safe, and effective natural antimicrobial agent for targeting Gram-positive bacterial infections in companion animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibiotic Resistance)

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5 pages, 149 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Pathogens of Wild Birds: Prevalence and Molecular and Morphological Characterization

by Alazne Díez-Fernández and Rafael Gutiérrez-López

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080825 - 20 Aug 2025

Wild birds are exposed to multiple infections by pathogenic microorganisms [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens of Wild Birds: Prevalence, Molecular and Morphological Characterization)

11 pages, 481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Tuberculosis in Migrant and Autocthonous Patients: A Ten-Year Single-Centre Experience

by Isabel García Soriano, Mónica Romero, Isabel Gascón, Verónica Solves, Reyes Pascual and Philip Erick Wikman-Jorgensen

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080824 - 20 Aug 2025

In recent years, migratory movements have increased. This study aimed to compare tuberculosis cases in migrant and autochthonous patients. We conducted a retrospective analytical cohort study of patients diagnosed with tuberculosis in the Elda Health District (Alicante, Spain) between 2013 and 2023. Of [...] Read more.

In recent years, migratory movements have increased. This study aimed to compare tuberculosis cases in migrant and autochthonous patients. We conducted a retrospective analytical cohort study of patients diagnosed with tuberculosis in the Elda Health District (Alicante, Spain) between 2013 and 2023. Of the 98 patients analyzed, 28 (29.6%) were migrants, predominantly male (65%), with a mean age of 35.6 years. Pulmonary tuberculosis was present in 82% of patients in both groups, and nine cases of drug-resistant tuberculosis were identified. No significant differences were observed between groups in treatment cure rates, mortality, or hospitalization. Unfavourable outcomes—a composite endpoint comprising mortality, treatment failure, and loss to follow-up—were more frequent in males and in patients with elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels (p = 0.033) or a higher CRP/albumin ratio. Migrants accounted for a substantial proportion of total TB cases and tended to be younger, with fewer comorbidities and lower rates of substance use. They showed a non-significant trend toward higher loss to follow-up and drug resistance. Overall, unfavourable outcomes were associated with elevated CRP levels and the CRP/albumin ratio. Full article

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15 pages, 1806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute HSV-1 Ocular Infection Is Impaired in KLF15 Knockout Mice but Stress-Induced Reactivation from Latency Is Prolonged in Male KLF15 Knockout Mice

by Kelly S. Harrison and Clinton Jones

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080823 - 20 Aug 2025

Acute human alpha-herpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) infection culminates in a latent infection of neurons in trigeminal ganglia (TG) and the central nervous system. Following infection of mucosal epithelial cells, certain neurons survive infection and life-long latency is established. Periodically, stressful stimuli trigger reactivation from [...] Read more.

Acute human alpha-herpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) infection culminates in a latent infection of neurons in trigeminal ganglia (TG) and the central nervous system. Following infection of mucosal epithelial cells, certain neurons survive infection and life-long latency is established. Periodically, stressful stimuli trigger reactivation from latency, which result in virus shedding, transmission to other people, and, occasionally, recurrent disease. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and Krüppel-like factor 15 (KLF15) comprise a feed-forward transcriptional loop that cooperatively transactivate key HSV-1 promoters that drive expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), ICP4, and ICP27. Silencing KLF15 significantly reduces HSV-1 replication in cultured mouse neuroblastoma cells. Consequently, we hypothesized that KLF15 mediates certain aspects of reactivation from latency. To test this hypothesis, we compared HSV-1 replication in KLF15^−/− mice versus wild-type (wt) parental C57BL/6 mice. Virus shedding during acute infection was reduced in KLF15^−/− mice. Male KLF15^−/− mice shed higher titers of virus during late stages of reactivation from latency compared to KLF15^−/− females and wt mice regardless of sex. At 15 d after explant-induced reactivation, virus shedding was higher in male KLF15^−/− mice relative to wt mice and female KLF15^−/− mice. These studies confirm KLF15 expression enhances viral replication during acute infection and reactivation from latency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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11 pages, 377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coronary Artery Disease in People Living with HIV May Reflect Their Sensitivity to Inflammation Associated with Cytomegalovirus

by Luna-faye Veld, Shelley Waters, Silvia Lee, Anna C. Hearps, Janine Trevillyan, Ari S. Mushin, Damien Foo, Jennifer Hoy and Patricia Price

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080822 - 20 Aug 2025

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is implicated in cardiovascular disease in healthy adults and after transplantation, but analyses in people living with HIV (PLWH) are difficult as almost all have CMV co-infections. Here, we address whether coronary artery disease (CAD) is associated with levels of CMV-reactive [...] Read more.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is implicated in cardiovascular disease in healthy adults and after transplantation, but analyses in people living with HIV (PLWH) are difficult as almost all have CMV co-infections. Here, we address whether coronary artery disease (CAD) is associated with levels of CMV-reactive antibodies or with sensitivity to inflammation associated with CMV. PLWH stable on antiretroviral therapy (ART) with a recent diagnosis of CAD were matched with PLWH without CAD. Plasma samples stored at the time of the CAD event and 6, 12, 24 or 36 months earlier (n = 34–55 per group) were used for analyses. Antibodies reactive with a lysate from CMV infected cells were quantitated using an in-house ELISA, and inflammatory biomarkers were assessed using commercial kits. Bivariate analyses demonstrated similar levels of CMV antibodies in PLWH with and without CAD at all time points (p > 0.5). However, in PLWH with CAD, levels of CMV antibody correlated directly with plasma sCD14, LBP, CXCL10 and/or IL-6 at the earlier points. These correlations were not impacted by detectable plasma HIV RNA. Our findings suggest that individual differences in sensitivity to the inflammatory effects of CMV impact upon the development of CAD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Pathways and Mechanisms Involved in Viral Infections)

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18 pages, 2226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Clonal Spread and Persistence of Campylobacter in Danish Broiler Farms and Its Association with Human Infections

by Katrine Grimstrup Joensen, Gitte Sørensen, Pernille Gymoese, Louise Gade Dahl and Eva Møller Nielsen

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080821 - 19 Aug 2025

Campylobacter is the most common cause of bacterial foodborne illness in the EU, primarily linked to poultry. To better understand its transmission dynamics, we applied whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to Campylobacter isolates collected at slaughterhouses over a two-year period from broilers originating from 26 [...] Read more.

Campylobacter is the most common cause of bacterial foodborne illness in the EU, primarily linked to poultry. To better understand its transmission dynamics, we applied whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to Campylobacter isolates collected at slaughterhouses over a two-year period from broilers originating from 26 Danish farms. The samples included cloacal swabs and boot sock samples from broiler houses and surrounding farm environments. We identified 150 distinct cgMLST types among 883 isolates. While most cgMLST types were flock-specific, some persisted across production cycles or appeared at different farms, indicating entrenched contamination or potential common-source introductions. Notably, 39% of broiler-associated cgMLST types overlapped with human clinical isolates from the same period, with the strongest overlap among persistent and cross-farm types, particularly in conventional production systems. Our findings underscore the need for strengthened biosecurity, targeted surveillance of high-risk genotypes, and real-time WGS integration to mitigate the burden of human Campylobacteriosis. This study supports a One Health approach to managing zoonotic risk in poultry production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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18 pages, 4035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antiviral Activity of Medicinal Plant Extracts Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius Against SARS-CoV-2

by Muhareva Raekiansyah, Mya Myat Ngwe Tun, Alexandra Ang, Alexandra Lee, Stephani Joy Macalino, Junie Billones, Yuki Takamatsu, Takeshi Urano, Lyre Anni E. Murao, Noel Quiming, Kouichi Morita and Maria Constancia Carrillo

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080820 - 19 Aug 2025

Natural products possess a wide range of biological and biochemical potentials, with plant-derived compounds being significant sources for discovering new drugs. In this study, extracts of Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius prepared with different solvents were tested for their antiviral activity against the [...] Read more.

Natural products possess a wide range of biological and biochemical potentials, with plant-derived compounds being significant sources for discovering new drugs. In this study, extracts of Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius prepared with different solvents were tested for their antiviral activity against the original SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain and its variants using plaque assay, quantitative real time RT-PCR, and immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Our results showed that at their maximum non-toxic concentrations, Vitex-Dichloromethane (DCM) and Macaranga extracts significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain growth in Vero E6 cells, showing a 5-log reduction in plaque assay and confirmed by IFA. Meanwhile, Vitex-Hexane showed moderate activity with a 2-log decrease. The inhibition was shown in a dose-dependent manner. The antiviral efficacy of these extracts was further demonstrated against various SARS-CoV-2 variants including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron. Both Vitex-DCM and Macaranga showed strong virucidal activity. In addition, Vitex-DCM and Macaranga inhibited the transcriptional activity of purified SARS-CoV-2 RdRp, indicating that RdRp inhibition may contribute to viral suppression as shown at the post-infection stage. Furthermore, combining Vitex-DCM or Macaranga with remdesivir showed a synergistic effect against SARS-CoV-2. These results suggest that Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius extracts are promising candidates for anti-SARS-CoV-2 treatments. Their synergy with remdesivir also underscores the potential of drug combinations in fighting SARS-CoV-2 and preventing the emergence of mutant variants. Full article

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10 pages, 278 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Paid Organ Donation: Case Report and Review of the Literature on Health Implications for Kidney Donors and Recipients

by Małgorzata Marchelek-Myśliwiec, Krzysztof Korzeniewski, Emilia Marchelek, Joanna Stępniewska and Danuta Kosik-Bogacka

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080819 - 19 Aug 2025

The shortage of organs for use in transplantation has contributed to the development of an international commercial market for organ transplantation. Unfortunately, transplant tourism (TT) is associated with risks for surgical complications, poor graft outcome, increased mortality, and infectious complications. TT increases the [...] Read more.

The shortage of organs for use in transplantation has contributed to the development of an international commercial market for organ transplantation. Unfortunately, transplant tourism (TT) is associated with risks for surgical complications, poor graft outcome, increased mortality, and infectious complications. TT increases the risk of several viral (HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses), bacterial (Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Pseudomonas sp., Enterococcus sp., Escherichia coli, and Acinetobacter sp.), fungal (Aspergillus sp., Zygomycetes, Ramichloridium sp., Scedosporium apiospermum, and Trichosporon sp.), and parasitic (Plasmodium sp., Trypanosoma cruzi and Strongyloides sp., and Microsporidia sp.) infections. This paper presents a case report of an anonymous patient who travelled to Pakistan and underwent a commercial kidney transplant. He developed infection from extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-EC). Moreover, we reviewed all published cases of bacterial, viral, and fungal infections in kidney transplant recipients who bought their organs abroad. Full article

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20 pages, 984 KiB

Open AccessReview

Maternal HIV Infection and Antiretroviral Therapy in Pregnancy: Implications for Vertical Transmission, Fetal Safety, and Long-Term Infant Outcomes

by Tudor Fleșeriu, Lorena Elena Meliț, Cristina Oana Mărginean, Adrian Vlad Pop and Anca-Meda Văsieșiu

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080818 - 19 Aug 2025

HIV mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) continues to pose a significant public health challenge, especially in regions with limited resources, although the worldwide distribution of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has drastically lowered the risk of vertical transmission to even below 1% in some regions. There are [...] Read more.

HIV mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) continues to pose a significant public health challenge, especially in regions with limited resources, although the worldwide distribution of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has drastically lowered the risk of vertical transmission to even below 1% in some regions. There are still uncertainties regarding the safety of some ART regimens during pregnancy and their longer-term effects on infants who are perinatally exposed to HIV but remain uninfected. This review explores current evidence regarding the interplay between maternal HIV infection, ART during pregnancy, and both maternal and pediatric outcomes. Particular attention is given to the risk/benefit ratio surrounding different drug classes, with integrase inhibitors seeming promising choices in MTCT due to their rapid viral suppression and favorable safety profiles. Meanwhile, regimens containing protease inhibitors or nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors have been linked to some adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, growth restriction, and potential mitochondrial or metabolic disturbances. Although ART remains central in preventing MTCT, a deeper understanding of its effects on fetal development and postnatal health is needed, and it should be thoroughly monitored through future research and longitudinal surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding HIV Pathogenesis and Targeting for the Prevention and Cure)

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11 pages, 1097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Droplet Digital PCR Assay Targeting the Internal Transcribed Spacer Gene for Rapid Detection of Talaromyces marneffei in AIDS Patients

by Yingyin Yang, Qinzhi Zhang, Pengle Guo, Meijun Chen, Yeyang Zhang, Weiping Cai, Xiaoping Tang and Linghua Li

Pathogens 2025, 14(8), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14080817 - 18 Aug 2025

Talaromycosis caused by Talaromyces marneffei is a life-threatening mycosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The gold-standard diagnostic method relies on time-consuming cultures, which delay treatment and increase mortality. In this study, we developed a rapid and sensitive droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) [...] Read more.

Talaromycosis caused by Talaromyces marneffei is a life-threatening mycosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The gold-standard diagnostic method relies on time-consuming cultures, which delay treatment and increase mortality. In this study, we developed a rapid and sensitive droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assay targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene for detecting T. marneffei and compared its performance with blood culture and quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays. The ddPCR assay had a detection limit of one copy/reaction, making it 10-fold more sensitive than qPCR. It demonstrated 100% specificity for T. marneffei, with no cross-reactivity to 15 other fungal pathogens, six bacterial pathogens, and plasma from 119 AIDS patients without talaromycosis. In 119 AIDS patients with talaromycosis, ddPCR exhibited better overall sensitivity (92.44%) than blood culture (86.55%) and qPCR (87.29%). The sensitivity of ddPCR was 97.8% (89/91) and 75% (21/28) in plasma collected before and after antifungal therapy, respectively. Moreover, fungal load measured by ddPCR negatively correlated with the time to blood culture positivity. Fungal loads in patients receiving antifungal therapy were significantly lower than those in untreated patients. These findings indicate that ddPCR facilitates rapid diagnosis of T. marneffei infection in AIDS patients and can assist clinicians in evaluating treatment efficacy by quantifying fungal load. Full article

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