Polymers

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

41 pages, 3217 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Updated Overview of Magnetic Composites for Water Decontamination

by Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu, Bogdan Mihaiescu, Dan Eduard Mihaiescu, Tony Hadibarata and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050709 - 5 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2251

Abstract

Water contamination by harmful organic and inorganic compounds seriously burdens human health and aquatic life. A series of conventional water purification methods can be employed, yet they come with certain disadvantages, including resulting sludge or solid waste, incomplete treatment process, and high costs. [...] Read more.

Water contamination by harmful organic and inorganic compounds seriously burdens human health and aquatic life. A series of conventional water purification methods can be employed, yet they come with certain disadvantages, including resulting sludge or solid waste, incomplete treatment process, and high costs. To overcome these limitations, attention has been drawn to nanotechnology for fabricating better-performing adsorbents for contaminant removal. In particular, magnetic nanostructures hold promise for water decontamination applications, benefiting from easy removal from aqueous solutions. In this respect, numerous researchers worldwide have reported incorporating magnetic particles into many composite materials. Therefore, this review aims to present the newest advancements in the field of magnetic composites for water decontamination, describing the appealing properties of a series of base materials and including the results of the most recent studies. In more detail, carbon-, polymer-, hydrogel-, aerogel-, silica-, clay-, biochar-, metal–organic framework-, and covalent organic framework-based magnetic composites are overviewed, which have displayed promising adsorption capacity for industrial pollutants. Full article

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21 pages, 4547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Salt Leakage Mitigation and Comparing Sorption–Desorption Characteristics of Polyacrylamide-Based Hydrogels

by Yimo Liu, Zhongbao Liu, Zhipeng Qie, Zepeng Wang and Weiming Sun

Polymers 2024, 16(4), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16040525 - 15 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1280

Abstract

Solid hygroscopic materials are extensively utilized in diverse fields, including adsorption heat transfer, adsorption heat storage, atmospheric water harvesting (AWH), and air conditioning dehumidification. The efficacy and energy efficiency of these materials in practical applications are significantly influenced by their adsorption and desorption [...] Read more.

Solid hygroscopic materials are extensively utilized in diverse fields, including adsorption heat transfer, adsorption heat storage, atmospheric water harvesting (AWH), and air conditioning dehumidification. The efficacy and energy efficiency of these materials in practical applications are significantly influenced by their adsorption and desorption properties. Yet, the introduction of inorganic salts to boost adsorption performance can result in issues like salt leakage. In this research, we prepared a polyacrylamide hydrogel through free radical polymerization, and its water-absorbing capabilities were improved by incorporating the hygroscopic salt lithium chloride. We compared it to a salt-based porous adsorbent, AlFum-LiCl, which also exhibited strong water adsorption properties and the potential for large-scale production. While AlFum-LiCl suffered from limited pores and salt leakage during high water uptake, the optimized PAM-LiCl displayed superior water sorption capabilities, showing no salt leakage even at water uptake of up to 3.5 g/g. At 25 °C, PAM-LiCl achieved equilibrium water uptake of 1.26 g/g at 30% RH and 3.15 g/g at 75% RH. In this context, utilizing 20 g of PAM-LiCl for the AWH experiment yielded daily water outputs of 8.34 L/kg at 30% RH and 16.86 L/kg at 75% RH. The salt-optimized PAM-LiCl hydrogel offers the benefit of application in higher relative humidity environments without the risk of deliquescence, underscoring its promise for atmospheric water harvesting. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

18 pages, 6447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Water Sorption Performance of Polyacrylamide & Glass Fiber Paper Composites: Investigation and Comparison of Application in Desiccant Wheels

by Yimo Liu, Zhongbao Liu, Zepeng Wang and Weiming Sun

Polymers 2023, 15(18), 3678; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15183678 - 6 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1314

Abstract

The water sorption and desorption properties of solid adsorbent materials are crucial in rotary dehumidification systems. Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and hydrogels are mostly at the laboratory stage due to factors like the synthesis process and yield. In this study, we utilized an [...] Read more.

The water sorption and desorption properties of solid adsorbent materials are crucial in rotary dehumidification systems. Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and hydrogels are mostly at the laboratory stage due to factors like the synthesis process and yield. In this study, we utilized an eco-friendly and large-scale synthesis method to prepare polyacrylamide (PAM) hydrogels (yielding approximately 500 mL from a single polymerization). Subsequently, PAM was then coated onto glass fiber paper (GFP), which serves as a commonly employed substrate in desiccant wheels. By incorporating the hygroscopic salt LiCl and optimizing the content of each component, the water sorption performance of the composite was notably improved. The water sorption and desorption performances, as well as cycling stability, were evaluated and compared with composites containing aluminum fumarate, LiCl, and GFP (AlFum-LiCl&GFP). The results revealed that PAM-LiCl&GFP outperformed AlFum-LiCl&GFP in terms of sorption capacity throughout various relative humidity (RH) levels. It achieved a water uptake of 1.06 g·g⁻¹ at 25 °C and 30% RH, corresponding to a water sorption rate coefficient K of 15.32 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. Furthermore, the lower desorption temperature (60 °C) resulting in a desorption ratio of 82.6%, along with the excellent cycling stability and effective performance as a desiccant wheel module, provide evidence for the potential application of PAM-LiCl&GFP in desiccant wheels. Full article

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18 pages, 1996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Regression Analysis on Steam Gasification of Polyvinyl Chloride Waste for an Efficient and Environmentally Sustainable Process

by Rezgar Hasanzadeh and Rzgar M. Abdalrahman

Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2767; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132767 - 21 Jun 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1475

Abstract

Over the last few years, researchers have shown a growing interest in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gasification and have conducted several studies to evaluate and enhance the process. These studies have recognized that processing parameters have a crucial impact on the assessment of PVC [...] Read more.

Over the last few years, researchers have shown a growing interest in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gasification and have conducted several studies to evaluate and enhance the process. These studies have recognized that processing parameters have a crucial impact on the assessment of PVC gasification. Despite this, there has been limited exploration of the use of machine learning techniques, particularly regression models, to optimize PVC waste gasification. This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of regression models as machine learning algorithms in predicting the performance of PVC waste gasification. The study uses data collected through a validated thermodynamic model, and three different regression models are tested and compared in detail. Cold gas efficiency and normalized carbon dioxide emission are predicted using linear, quadratic, and quadratic with interaction algorithms. The outcomes for emission algorithms reveal that the linear emission algorithm possesses a high R-square value of 97.49%, which indicates its strong predictive capability. Nevertheless, the quadratic algorithm outperforms it, exhibiting an R-square value of 99.81%. The quadratic algorithm with an interaction term, however, proves to be the best among them all, displaying a perfect R-square value of 99.90%. A similar observation is detected for the cold gas efficiency algorithms. These findings suggest that the quadratic algorithm with an interaction term is superior and has a greater predictive accuracy. This research is expected to provide valuable insight into how regression algorithms can be used to maximize the efficiency of PVC waste gasification and reduce its associated environmental concerns. Full article

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14 pages, 2589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal, Adsorption, and Cleaning of Pharmaceutical on Polyamide RO and NF Membranes

by Davor Dolar, Iva Ćurić and Danijela Ašperger

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122745 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1387

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals are present in various waters and can be almost completely rejected by membrane separation processes, i.e., nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Nevertheless, the adsorption of pharmaceuticals can decrease their rejection, so adsorption can be considered a very important removal mechanism. In [...] Read more.

Pharmaceuticals are present in various waters and can be almost completely rejected by membrane separation processes, i.e., nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Nevertheless, the adsorption of pharmaceuticals can decrease their rejection, so adsorption can be considered a very important removal mechanism. In order to increase the lifetime of the membranes, the adsorbed pharmaceuticals must be cleaned from the membrane. The used pharmaceutical (albendazole), the most common anthelmintic for threatening worms, has been shown to adsorb to the membrane (solute-membrane adsorption). In this paper, which is a novelty, commercially available cleaning reagents, NaOH/EDTA solution, and methanol (20%, 50%, and ≥99.6%) were used for pharmaceutical cleaning (desorption) of the NF/RO membranes used. The effectiveness of the cleaning was verified by Fourier-transform infrared spectra of the membranes. Of all the chemical cleaning reagents used, pure methanol was the only cleaning reagent that removed albendazole from the membranes. Full article

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17 pages, 161680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DFT Calculation and MD Simulation Studies on Gemini Surfactant Corrosion Inhibitor in Acetic Acid Media

by Mohd Sofi Numin, Khairulazhar Jumbri, Kok Eng Kee, Almila Hassan, Noorazlenawati Borhan and Juan Matmin

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2155; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092155 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2124

Abstract

Gemini surfactant corrosion inhibitor (CI) is one type of CI mainly used in mitigating corrosion in the complex system of oil/gas production industries. Computer modeling methods such as density functional theory (DFT) calculation and molecular dynamic (MD) simulation are required to develop new [...] Read more.

Gemini surfactant corrosion inhibitor (CI) is one type of CI mainly used in mitigating corrosion in the complex system of oil/gas production industries. Computer modeling methods such as density functional theory (DFT) calculation and molecular dynamic (MD) simulation are required to develop new CI molecules focusing on their application condition as a prediction or screening process before the physical empirical assessment. In this work, the adsorption inhibition efficiencies of two monomer surfactants (2B and H) and their respective Gemini structures with the addition of different spacers (alkyl, benzene, ester, ether, and ketone) are investigated using DFT calculation and MD simulation method in 3% sodium chloride (NaCl), and 1500 ppm acetic acid solutions. In DFT calculation, 2B-benzene molecules are assumed to have the most promising inhibition efficiency based on their high reactivity and electron-donating ability at their electron-rich benzene ring region based on the lowest bandgap energy (0.765 eV) and highest HOMO energy value (−2.879 eV), respectively. DFT calculation results correlate with the adsorption energy calculated from MD simulation, where 2B-benzene is also assumed to work better as a CI molecule with the most adsorption strength towards Fe (110) metal with the highest negative adsorption energy value (−1837.33 kJ/mol at temperature 323 K). Further, diffusion coefficient and molecular aggregation analysis in different CI concentrations through MD simulation reveals that only a small amount of Gemini surfactant CI is needed in the inhibition application compared to its respective monomer. Computer simulation methods successfully predict and screen the Gemini surfactant CI molecules that can work better as a corrosion inhibitor in acetic acid media. The amount of Gemini surfactant CI that needs to be used is also predicted. The future planning or way forward from this study will be the development of the most promising Gemini surfactant CI based on the results from DFT calculation and MD simulations. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021, 2020, 2019

12 pages, 3941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Using Biochar as an Eco-Friendly Microfiller in Polymer Concretes

by Maja Kępniak, Kamil Załęgowski, Piotr Woyciechowski, Jędrzej Pawłowski and Jakub Nurczyński

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4701; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214701 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1687

Abstract

The circular economy includes, among other things, the use of waste materials. One such material is biochar, which should not be used as a fuel because its combustion generates large amounts of air pollution. This study evaluates the feasibility of using biochar as [...] Read more.

The circular economy includes, among other things, the use of waste materials. One such material is biochar, which should not be used as a fuel because its combustion generates large amounts of air pollution. This study evaluates the feasibility of using biochar as a partial filler in a polymer concrete. The components of the polymer concretes used in this study were vinyl-ester resin, traditional microfiller—quartz powder, waste microfiller—biochar and quartz aggregate with grain sizes up to 2 mm. The quartz aggregate was dosed at a constant rate of 1458 kg/m³ of concrete, whereas the dosage of resin and microfiller was formulated according to the experimental plan for mixtures and executed based on the volume of the remaining space: resin (65–85%), quartz powder (5–35%) and biochar (0–10%). The effects on the setting process, the consistency of the fresh composite mix and the flexural and compressive strengths were investigated. The study revealed significant deterioration of technological parameters (over 15% of biochar content makes a mixture unworkable) and slight deterioration of mechanical ones (flexural strength did not change significantly, and the compressive strength decreased by up to 15%). These results indicate that, despite some limitations, the use of biochar as an alternative pro-ecological filler is possible. Full article

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20 pages, 4330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Functionalized with Hydroxamic Acid Derivatives for the Removal of Lead from Wastewater: Kinetics, Isotherm, and Thermodynamic Studies

by Yasair S. S. Al-Faiyz and Mohamed Gouda

Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3870; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183870 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

Hydroxamic acids are recognized chelators for various metals; however, using them as functional groups on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is rare. In this study, novel multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) functionalized with hydroxamic acid derivatives were developed. The MWCNTs were first oxidized, and the resulting [...] Read more.

Hydroxamic acids are recognized chelators for various metals; however, using them as functional groups on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is rare. In this study, novel multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) functionalized with hydroxamic acid derivatives were developed. The MWCNTs were first oxidized, and the resulting product, MWCNT-COOH (A), was treated with oxalyl chloride to yield MWCNT-COCl. The functionalized MWCNTs were susceptible to reacting with the hydroxylamine derivatives of type R–NHOH and produced MWCNTs functionalized with the following hydroxamic acid derivatives (MWCNT-HA): MWCNT-CONOHMe (B), MWCNT-CONOHCOMe(C), and MWCNT-CONOHPh (D). The synthesized derivatives were confirmed by various techniques such as scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. In order to examine their chelation ability, these materials were examined as possible new adsorbents for harmful Pb(II) particles. The adsorption efficiency of the functionalized MWCNT adsorbents toward Pb(II) was investigated. The effects of the adsorbent dose, temperature, pH, and time on adsorption efficiency were considered, and adsorption boundaries that resulted in enhanced effectiveness were obtained. The developed materials were found to have extraordinary coordination sites, such as amine, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups, which served as excellent chelating specialists for the Pb(II) particles. Thermodynamic and kinetic investigations revealed the unconstrained nature of the adsorption of Pb(II) by the developed MWCNT adsorbents at room temperature. The adsorption was noted to follow the pseudo-second-order and Langmuir isotherm models. Full article

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11 pages, 1480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compaction of a Polymeric Membrane in Ultra-Low-Pressure Water Filtration

by Muhammad Roil Bilad, Siti Rahma Junaeda, Yusran Khery, Baiq Asma Nufida, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Anwar Usman and Violet Violet

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3254; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163254 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

Applications of ultra-low-pressure filtration systems are increasing as they offer enhanced sustainability due to lower energy input, almost no use of chemicals, and minimum operational expenditure. In many cases, they operate as a decentralized system using a gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filtration process. These [...] Read more.

Applications of ultra-low-pressure filtration systems are increasing as they offer enhanced sustainability due to lower energy input, almost no use of chemicals, and minimum operational expenditure. In many cases, they operate as a decentralized system using a gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filtration process. These applications are relatively new; hence, the fundamental knowledge of the process is still limited. In this study, we investigated the phenomenon of polymeric membrane compaction under an ultra-low-pressure system. The compaction phenomenon is well-recognized in the traditional pressure-driven system operating at high transmembrane pressures (ΔPs > 200 kPa), but it is less documented in ultra-low-pressure systems (ΔP < 10 kPa). A simple GDM filtration setup operated under a constant-pressure system was employed to investigate the compaction phenomena in a polymeric hollow fiber membrane for clean water filtration. Firstly, a short-term pressure stepping test was performed to investigate the occurrence of instantaneous compaction in the ΔP range of 1–10 kPa. The slow compaction was later investigated. Finally, the compaction dynamic was assessed under alternating high and low ΔP and relaxation in between the filtrations. The findings demonstrated the prominence of membrane compaction, as shown by the decreasing trend in clean water permeability at higher ΔPs (i.e., 3240 and 2401 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹ at ΔPs of 1 and 10 kPa, respectively). We also found that the intrinsic permeability of the applied polymeric membrane was significantly higher than the apparent one (4351 vs. 2401 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹), demonstrating >50% loss due to compaction. The compaction was mainly instantaneous, which occurred when the ΔP was changed, whereas only minor changes in permeability occurred over time when operating at a constant ΔP. The compaction was highly reversible and could be restored (i.e., decompaction) through relaxation by temporarily stopping the filtration. A small fraction of irreversible compaction could be detected by operating alternating filtrations under ΔPs of 1 and 10 kPa. The overall findings are essential to support emerging GDM filtration applications, in which membrane compaction has been ignored and confounded with membrane fouling. The role of compaction is more prominent for high-flux GDM filtration systems treating less-fouling-prone feed (i.e., rainwater, river water) and involving membrane cleaning (i.e., relaxation) in which both reversible and irreversible compaction occurred simultaneously. Full article

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13 pages, 2143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Separation of Chlorobenzene Compounds from Environmental Water Using a Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Chitosan Membrane

by Guizhen Li, Jinyao Wang, Peng Zhu, Ying Han, Anqi Yu, Junhong Li, Zhaomei Sun and Kyung Ho Row

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3221; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153221 - 8 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2292

Abstract

In this work, a magnetic molecularly imprinted chitosan membrane (MMICM) was synthesized for the extraction of chlorobenzene compounds in environmental water using the membrane separation method. The optimal extraction amount for chlorobenzene (9.64 mg·L⁻¹) was found to be a 1:2 solid [...] Read more.

In this work, a magnetic molecularly imprinted chitosan membrane (MMICM) was synthesized for the extraction of chlorobenzene compounds in environmental water using the membrane separation method. The optimal extraction amount for chlorobenzene (9.64 mg·L⁻¹) was found to be a 1:2 solid to liquid ratio, with a 20 min extraction time and 35 °C extraction temperature. This method proved to be successfully applied for the separation and trace quantification of chlorobenzene compounds in environmental water, with the limit of detection (LOD) (0.0016–0.057 ng·L⁻¹), limit of quantification (LOQ) (0.0026–0.098 ng·L⁻¹), and the recoveries ranging (89.02–106.97%). Full article

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16 pages, 4089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing the Conditions of Cationic Polyacrylamide Inverse Emulsion Synthesis Reaction to Obtain High–Molecular–Weight Polymers

by Tung Huy Nguyen, Nhung Thi Nguyen, Thao Thi Phuong Nguyen, Ngoc Thi Doan, Lam Anh Thi Tran, Linh Pham Duy Nguyen and Thanh Tien Bui

Polymers 2022, 14(14), 2866; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142866 - 14 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2455

Abstract

Cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) emulsifier is widely applied in the wastewater treatment industry, mining industry, paper industry, cosmetic chemistry, etc. However, optimization of input parameters in the synthesis of CPAM by using the traditional approach (i.e., changing one factor while leaving the others fixed [...] Read more.

Cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) emulsifier is widely applied in the wastewater treatment industry, mining industry, paper industry, cosmetic chemistry, etc. However, optimization of input parameters in the synthesis of CPAM by using the traditional approach (i.e., changing one factor while leaving the others fixed at a particular set of conditions) would require a long time and a high cost of input materials. Onsite mass production of CPAM requires fast optimization of input parameters (i.e., stirring speed, reaction temperature and time, the amount of initiator, etc.) to minimize the production cost of specific–molecular–weight CPAM. Therefore, in this study, we synthesized CPAM using reverse emulsion copolymerization, and proposed response surface models for predicting the average molecular weight and reaction yield based on those input parameters. This study offers a time–saving tool for onsite mass production of specific–molecular–weight CPAM. Based on our response surface models, we obtained the optimal conditions for the synthesis of CPAM emulsions, which yielded medium–molecular–weight polymers and high conversion, with a reaction temperature of 60–62 °C, stirring speed of 2500–2600 rpm, and reaction time of 7 h. Quadratic models showed a good fit for predicting molecular weight (Adj.R² = 0.9888, coefficient of variation = 2.08%) and reaction yield (Adj.R² = 0.9982, coefficient of variation = 0.50%). The models suggested by our study would benefit the cost–minimization of CPAM mass production, where one could find optimal conditions for synthesizing different molecular weights of CPAM more quickly than via the traditional approach. Full article

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21 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessReview

Confounding Effect of Wetting, Compaction, and Fouling in an Ultra-Low-Pressure Membrane Filtration: A Review

by Tok Sheng Hung, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Hazwani Suhaimi, Noor Maizura Ismail, Juhana Jaafar and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2073; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102073 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2708

Abstract

Ultra-low-pressure membrane (ULPM) filtration has emerged as a promising decentralized water and wastewater treatment method. It has been proven effective in long-term filtration under stable flux without requiring physical or chemical cleaning, despite operating at considerably lower flux. The use of ultra-low pressure, [...] Read more.

Ultra-low-pressure membrane (ULPM) filtration has emerged as a promising decentralized water and wastewater treatment method. It has been proven effective in long-term filtration under stable flux without requiring physical or chemical cleaning, despite operating at considerably lower flux. The use of ultra-low pressure, often simply by hydrostatic force (often called gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filtration), makes it fall into the uncharted territory of common pressure-driven membrane filtration. The applied polymeric membrane is sensitive to compaction, wetting, and fouling. This paper reviews recent studies on membrane compaction, wetting, and fouling. The scope of this review includes studies on those phenomena in the ULPM and how they affect the overall performance of the system. The performance of GDM systems for water and wastewater treatment is also evaluated. Finally, perspectives on the future research direction of ULPM filtration are also detailed. Full article

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16 pages, 3055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Red Seaweed (Gracilaria verrucosa Greville) Based Polyurethane as Adsorptive Membrane for Ammonia Removal in Water

by Salfauqi Nurman, Saiful, Rahmi, Binawati Ginting and Marlina

Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1572; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081572 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2639

Abstract

Polyurethane membranes are widely developed polymers by researchers because they can be made from synthetic materials or natural materials. Red seaweed (Gracilaria verrucosa Greville) is a natural material that can be developed as a raw material for polyurethane membranes. This study used [...] Read more.

Polyurethane membranes are widely developed polymers by researchers because they can be made from synthetic materials or natural materials. Red seaweed (Gracilaria verrucosa Greville) is a natural material that can be developed as a raw material for polyurethane membranes. This study used red seaweed biomass (RSB) as a raw material to manufacture polyurethane as an adsorptive membrane for removing ammonia in water. The membrane composition was determined using the Box–Behnken design from Response Surface Methodology with three factors and three levels. In the ammonia adsorption process, the adsorption isotherm was determined by varying the concentration, while the adsorption kinetics was determined by varying the contact time. Red seaweed biomass-based polyurethane membrane (PUM-RSB) can adsorb ammonia in water with an adsorption capacity of 0.233 mg/g and an adsorption efficiency of 16.2%. The adsorption efficiency followed the quadratic model in the Box–Behnken design, which resulted in the optimal composition of RSB 0.15 g, TDI 3.0 g, and glycerin 0.4 g with predicted and actual adsorption capacities of 0.224 mg/g and 0.226 mg/g. The ammonia adsorption isotherm using PUM-RSB follows the Freundlich isotherm, with a high correlation coefficient (R²) of 0.977, while the Langmuir isotherm has a low R² value of 0.926. The Freundlich isotherm indicates that ammonia is adsorbed on the surface of the adsorbent as multilayer adsorption. In addition, based on the analysis of adsorption kinetics, the adsorption phenomenon follows pseudo-order II with a chemisorption mechanism, and it is assumed that the bond that occurs is between the anion –SO₄²⁻ with the NH₄⁺ cation to form ammonium sulfate (NH₄)₂SO₄ and between isocyanates (NCO) with NH₄⁺ cations to form substituted urea. Full article

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12 pages, 6576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Spinneret Rotation Speed and Airflow Parameters for the Nozzleless Forcespinning of a Polymer Solution

by Josef Skrivanek, Pavel Holec, Ondrej Batka, Martin Bilek and Pavel Pokorny

Polymers 2022, 14(5), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14051042 - 5 Mar 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2760

Abstract

This paper addresses the changing of the process parameters of nozzleless centrifugal spinning (forcespinning). The primary aim of this study was to determine the dependence of the final product on the dosing of the polymer, the rotation speed of the spinneret and the [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the changing of the process parameters of nozzleless centrifugal spinning (forcespinning). The primary aim of this study was to determine the dependence of the final product on the dosing of the polymer, the rotation speed of the spinneret and the airflow in order to determine the extent of the technological applicability of aqueous polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and its modifications. PVA was chosen because it is a widely used polymeric solution with environmentally friendly properties and good biodegradability. It is used in the health care and food packaging sectors. The nanofibrous layers were produced by means of a mobile handheld spinning device of our own construction. This mobile application of the spinning machine has several limitations compared to stationary laboratory equipment, mainly due to dimensional limitations. The uniqueness of our device lies in the possibility of its actual use outside the laboratory. In addition to improved mobility, another exciting feature is the combination of nozzleless forcespinning and fiber application using airflow. Dosing, the rotation speed of the spinnerets and the targeted and controlled use of air comprise the fundamental technological parameters for many devices that operate on a centrifugal force system. The rotation rate of the spinnerets primarily affects the production of fibers and their quality, while the airflow acts as a fiber transport and drying medium. The quality of the fibers was evaluated following the preparation of a testing set for the fiber layers. The most suitable combinations of rotation speed and airflow were then used in subsequent experiments to determine the ideal settings for the device. The solution was then modified by reducing the concentration to 16% and adding a surfactant, thus leading to a reduction in the diameters of the resulting fibers. The nanofiber layers so produced were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in order to analyze the number of defects and to statistically evaluate the fiber diameters. Full article

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17 pages, 2708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Superabsorbent Polymer on the Resilient and Plastic Strain Behavior of Cemented Soil under Traffic Load

by Di Dai, Jie Peng, Lanlan Bai, Gang Li and Hongmin Lin

Polymers 2022, 14(5), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14050929 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

In road construction, a large number of excavated soils need to be treated with stabilizers. The addition of superabsorbent polymer (SAP) can improve the road performance of these stabilized soils. In order to predict roadbed deformation, dynamic triaxial tests were carried out on [...] Read more.

In road construction, a large number of excavated soils need to be treated with stabilizers. The addition of superabsorbent polymer (SAP) can improve the road performance of these stabilized soils. In order to predict roadbed deformation, dynamic triaxial tests were carried out on cemented soil containing SAP to investigate its resilient and plastic strain behavior. The effects of SAP content, cyclic stress ratio, and loading frequency on cement-stabilized soils with SAP were analyzed combined with the number of cycles. This study demonstrates how these influencing factors effect the resilient strain, dynamic elastic modulus, and accumulated plastic strain, which are crucial to better understanding the strain behavior of cement-stabilized soil with SAP. The results show that SAP can significantly improve the brittle failure characteristics and dynamic strength of cement-stabilized soil. Soil with higher SAP content possesses smaller accumulated plastic strain; with the increase in the cyclic stress ratio, the dynamic elastic modulus decreases significantly, whereas the accumulated plastic strain has the opposite trend. In addition, the lower frequency produces larger cumulative axial strain. Full article

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12 pages, 2634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Performance and Stability of Interlayer-Free Mesoporous Silica Membranes for Wetland Saline Water Pervaporation

by Muthia Elma, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Amalia Enggar Pratiwi, Aulia Rahma, Zaini Lambri Asyyaifi, Hairullah Hairullah, Isna Syauqiah, Yulian Firmana Arifin and Riani Ayu Lestari

Polymers 2022, 14(5), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14050895 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2006

Abstract

Wetland water is an alternative water resource around wetland areas. However, it is typically saline due to seawater intrusion and contains high natural organic matter (NOM) that is challenging to treat. This study evaluated the stability of interlayer-free mesoporous silica matrix membranes employing [...] Read more.

Wetland water is an alternative water resource around wetland areas. However, it is typically saline due to seawater intrusion and contains high natural organic matter (NOM) that is challenging to treat. This study evaluated the stability of interlayer-free mesoporous silica matrix membranes employing a dual acid–base catalyzed sol–gel process for treatment of saline wetland water. The silica sols were prepared under a low silanol concentration, dip-coated in 4 layers, and calcined using the rapid thermal processing method. The membrane performance was initially evaluated through pervaporation under various temperatures (25–60 °C) using various feeds. Next, the long-term stability (up to 400 h) of wetland saline water desalination was evaluated. Results show that the water flux increased at higher temperatures up to 6.9 and 6.5 kg·m⁻²·h⁻¹ at the highest temperature of 60 °C for the seawater and the wetland saline water feeds, respectively. The long-term stability demonstrated a stable performance without flux and rejection decline up to 170 h operation, beyond which slow declines in water flux and rejection were observed due to fouling by NOM and membrane wetting. The overall findings suggest that an interlayer-free mesoporous silica membrane offers excellent performance and high salt rejection (80–99%) for wetland saline water treatments. Full article

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13 pages, 2929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Polyethyleneimine-Functionalized Magnetic Cellulose Nanocrystals for the Adsorption of Diclofenac Sodium from Aqueous Solutions

by Xiaoyan Zhu, Jiaqi Tong, Hangzhen Lan and Daodong Pan

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 720; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040720 - 13 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2667

Abstract

Diclofenac sodium (DS), one of the most used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs worldwide, is often detected in wastewater and natural water. This drug is ecotoxic, even at low concentrations. Therefore, it is essential to fabricate low-cost adsorbents that can easily and effectively remove DS [...] Read more.

Diclofenac sodium (DS), one of the most used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs worldwide, is often detected in wastewater and natural water. This drug is ecotoxic, even at low concentrations. Therefore, it is essential to fabricate low-cost adsorbents that can easily and effectively remove DS from contaminated water bodies. In this study, a polyethyleneimine (PEI)-modified magnetic cellulose nanocrystal (MCNC) was prepared with a silane coupling agent as a bridge. TEM, FTIR, XRD, and VSM were used to demonstrate the successful preparation of MCNC-PEI. This composite adsorbent exhibited efficient DS removal. Furthermore, the adsorption performance of MCNC-PEI on DS was optimal under mildly acidic conditions (pH = 4.5). Adsorption kinetics showed that the adsorption process involves mainly electrostatic interactions. Moreover, the maximum adsorption capacity reached 299.93 mg/g at 25 °C, and the adsorption capacity only decreased by 9.9% after being reused five times. Considering its low cost, low toxicity, and high DS removal capacity, MCNC-PEI could be a promising adsorbent for treating DS-contaminated water. Full article

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15 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Characterization and Physicochemical Properties of Biogenic Silver Nanoparticle-Encapsulated Chitosan Bionanocomposites

by Sreelekha Ediyilyam, Mahesh M. Lalitha, Bini George, Sarojini Sharath Shankar, Stanisław Wacławek, Miroslav Černík and Vinod Vellora Thekkae Padil

Polymers 2022, 14(3), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030463 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3676

Abstract

Green bionanocomposites have garnered considerable attention and applications in the pharmaceutical and packaging industries because of their intrinsic features, such as biocompatibility and biodegradability. The work presents a novel approach towards the combined effect of glycerol, tween 80 and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on [...] Read more.

Green bionanocomposites have garnered considerable attention and applications in the pharmaceutical and packaging industries because of their intrinsic features, such as biocompatibility and biodegradability. The work presents a novel approach towards the combined effect of glycerol, tween 80 and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on the physicochemical properties of lyophilized chitosan (CH) scaffolds produced via a green synthesis method.The produced bionanocomposites were characterized with the help of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The swelling behavior, water vapor transmission rate, moisture retention capability, degradation in Hanks solution, biodegradability in soil, mechanical strength and electrochemical performance of the composites were evaluated. The addition of additives to the CH matrix alters the physicochemical and biological functioning of the matrix. Plasticized scaffolds showed an increase in swelling degree, water vapor transmission rate and degradability in Hank’s balanced solution compared to the blank chitosan scaffolds. The addition of tween 80 made the scaffolds more porous, and changes in physicochemical properties were observed. Green-synthesized AgNPs showed intensified antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Incorporating biogenic nanoparticles into the CH matrix enhances the polymer composites’ biochemical properties and increases the demand in the medical and biological sectors. These freeze-dried chitosan-AgNPs composite scaffolds had tremendous applications, especially in biomedical fields like wound dressing, tissue engineering, bone regeneration, etc. Full article

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15 pages, 3738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Polyvinylidene Difluoride Membrane with Enhanced Pore and Filtration Properties by Using Tannic Acid as an Additive

by Sri Mulyati, Sri Aprilia, Syawaliah Muchtar, Yanna Syamsuddin, Cut Meurah Rosnelly, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Shafirah Samsuri and Noor Maizura Ismail

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010186 - 3 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2545

Abstract

Potential use of tannic acid (TA) as an additive for fabrication of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane was investigated. The TA was introduced by blending into the dope solution with varying concentrations of 0, 1, 1.5, and 2 wt%. The prepared membranes were characterized [...] Read more.

Potential use of tannic acid (TA) as an additive for fabrication of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane was investigated. The TA was introduced by blending into the dope solution with varying concentrations of 0, 1, 1.5, and 2 wt%. The prepared membranes were characterized and evaluated for filtration of humic acid (HA) solution. The stability of the membrane under harsh treatment was also evaluated by one-week exposure to acid and alkaline conditions. The results show that TA loadings enhanced the resulting membrane properties. It increased the bulk porosity, water uptake, and hydrophilicity, which translated into improved clean water flux from 15.4 L/m².h for the pristine PVDF membrane up to 3.3× for the TA-modified membranes with the 2 wt% TA loading. The flux recovery ratio (FRR) of the TA-modified membranes (FRRs = 78–83%) was higher than the pristine one (FRR = 58.54%), with suitable chemical stability too. The improved antifouling property for the TA-modified membranes was attributed to their enhanced hydrophilicity thanks to improved morphology and residual TA in the membrane matric. Full article

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2021

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12 pages, 4092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstruction of Fibroin Nanofibers (FNFs) via Electrospinning: Fabrication of Poly(vinyl alcohol)/FNFs Composite Nanofibers from Aqueous Solution

by Shohei Fujita, Huaizhong Xu, Yubing Dong and Yoko Okahisa

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010043 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

Fibroin nanofibers (FNFs) achieved from physical treated silk can keep its original crystal structure, showing excellent mechanical properties, however, processing the FNFs into fibers is still a challenge. Herein, a brand-new environmentally friendly approach is proposed to manufacture FNFs-based composite nanofibers. The water-soluble [...] Read more.

Fibroin nanofibers (FNFs) achieved from physical treated silk can keep its original crystal structure, showing excellent mechanical properties, however, processing the FNFs into fibers is still a challenge. Herein, a brand-new environmentally friendly approach is proposed to manufacture FNFs-based composite nanofibers. The water-soluble polymer, poly(vinyl alcohol) PVA, was applied to increase the viscoelasticity of the spinning dope, and the content of FNFs can reach up to 20 wt%. The established phase image of spinning suggested that the concentrations ranging from 6 wt% to 8 wt% are premium to achieving relatively homogenous FNFs/PVA nanofibers. Random fibers were deposited on a fixed collector, while the fiber orientation intensity increased with the rotational speed of drum and started decreasing after 12 m/s. The mechanical properties of the composite nanofibers showed the similar tendency of variation of fiber orientation. In addition, chemical changes, crystallinity, and thermal properties of the composite nanofibers were further clarified by means of FTIR, DSC, and TG. As a result, high FNFs contained nanofibers with excellent thermal properties were created from an aqueous solution. This study is the first original work to realize the spinnability of FNFs, which provides a new insight of the FNFs. Full article

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13 pages, 4986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Properties and Performances of Polyethersulfone Ultrafiltration Membrane by Blending with Bio-Based Dragonbloodin Resin

by Aulia Chintia Ambarita, Sri Mulyati, Nasrul Arahman, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Norazanita Shamsuddin and Noor Maizura Ismail

Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4436; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244436 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3341

Abstract

Polyethersulfone (PES) is the most commonly used polymer for membrane ultrafiltration because of its superior properties. However, it is hydrophobic, as such susceptible to fouling and low permeation rate. This study proposes a novel bio-based additive of dragonbloodin resin (DBR) for improving the [...] Read more.

Polyethersulfone (PES) is the most commonly used polymer for membrane ultrafiltration because of its superior properties. However, it is hydrophobic, as such susceptible to fouling and low permeation rate. This study proposes a novel bio-based additive of dragonbloodin resin (DBR) for improving the properties and performance of PES-based membranes. Four flat sheet membranes were prepared by varying the concentration of DBR (0–3%) in the dope solutions using the phase inversion method. After fabrication, the membranes were thoroughly characterized and were tested for filtration of humic acid solution to investigate the effect of DBR loading. Results showed that the hydrophilicity, porosity, and water uptake increased along with the DBR loadings. The presence of DBR in the dope solution fastened the phase inversion, leading to a more porous microstructure, resulted in membranes with higher number and larger pore sizes. Those properties led to more superior hydraulic performances. The PES membranes loaded with DBR reached a clean water flux of 246.79 L/(m²·h), 25-folds higher than the pristine PES membrane at a loading of 3%. The flux of humic acid solution reached 154.5 ± 6.6 L/(m²·h), 30-folds higher than the pristine PES membrane with a slight decrease in rejection (71% vs. 60%). Moreover, DBR loaded membranes (2% and 3%) showed an almost complete flux recovery ratio over five cleaning cycles, demonstrating their excellent antifouling property. The hydraulic performance could possibly be enhanced by leaching the entrapped DBR to create more voids and pores for water permeation. Full article

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19 pages, 3715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Functionalization of Iron Oxide Particles with Alginate: A Promising Biosorbent for Retention of Metal Ions

by Alina-Roxana Lucaci, Dumitru Bulgariu and Laura Bulgariu

Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3554; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203554 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 1849

Abstract

In this study, alginate extracted from marine algae biomass was used for the functionalization of iron oxide particles obtained in situ. This procedure ensured a complete recovery of the alginate from the aqueous solution obtained after extraction and allowed the preparation of a [...] Read more.

In this study, alginate extracted from marine algae biomass was used for the functionalization of iron oxide particles obtained in situ. This procedure ensured a complete recovery of the alginate from the aqueous solution obtained after extraction and allowed the preparation of a new biosorbent. The obtained iron oxide microparticles functionalized with alginate (Alg-Fe₃O₄-MPs) were analyzed (FTIR spectrometry, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy), and their biosorptive performance was tested for the removal of Cu(II), Co(II) and Zn(II) ions. The optimal conditions were established as pH = 5.4, adsorbent dosage of 2 g/L, contact time of minimum 60 min and room temperature (23 ± 1 °C). The retention of metal ions was quantitative (99% for Cu(II), 89% for Co(II) and 95% for Zn(II)) when the concentration of metal ions was less than 0.80 mmol M(II)/L. The Langmuir model was found to be the best fitted model for the equilibrium data, while biosorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second order model. Biosorption processes were spontaneous (ΔG⁰ < 0), endothermic (ΔH⁰ > 0), and accompanied by an increase in entropy (ΔS⁰ > 0). The high maximum biosorption capacity of Alg-Fe₃O₄-MPs and its good regeneration highlight the potential of this biosorbent for applications in decontamination processes. Full article

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13 pages, 2914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetic and Thermodynamic Characteristics of Fluoride Ions Adsorption from Solution onto the Aluminum Oxide Nanolayer of a Bacterial Cellulose-Based Composite Material

by Alexander V. Dolganov, Vadim D. Revin, Sergey G. Kostryukov, Viktor V. Revin and Guang Yang

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3421; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193421 - 5 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2165

Abstract

The described research examined the adsorption of fluoride ions from solution immobilized onto an aluminum oxide-coated bacterial cellulose-based composite material in which aluminum oxide had been deposited using ALD technology. The kinetic regularities of the adsorption of fluoride ions from the solution as [...] Read more.

The described research examined the adsorption of fluoride ions from solution immobilized onto an aluminum oxide-coated bacterial cellulose-based composite material in which aluminum oxide had been deposited using ALD technology. The kinetic regularities of the adsorption of fluoride ions from the solution as well as the mechanism of the processes were analyzed. The established equations show that the dynamics of adsorption correspond to first-order kinetics. Based on the Langmuir adsorption isotherms, we defined the adsorption equilibrium constants, parameter maximum adsorption, and change in Gibbs free energy. It is shown that, with increasing temperature, an increase in the reaction rate is constant, both forward and reverse. This testifies to the activated character of adsorption of the first fluoride on the surface of the sorbent based on bacterial cellulose modified with an alumina nanolayer. The activation energy of the desorption process is higher than the activation energy of the adsorption process, which characterizes the adsorption as ionic. The negative value of entropy indicates that in the course of sorption, an adsorption complex “aluminum-fluorine” is formed, where the system is more ordered than the initial system in which fluorine ions are in solution. The limiting stages of the process are revealed. The high sorption capacity of the resulting bacterial cellulose-based composite material obtained by means of biosynthesis through cultivation of the bacterium Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans B-11267 was demonstrated. Full article

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22 pages, 8669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Fe(OH)₃ and MnO₂ Flocs on Iron/Manganese Removal and Fouling in Aerated Submerged Membrane Systems

by Güler Türkoğlu Demirkol, Suna Özden Çelik, Sevgi Güneş Durak, Seren Acarer, Ender Çetin, Sultan Akarçay Demir and Neşe Tüfekci

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3201; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193201 - 22 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3348

Abstract

Many treatment methods are used to remove iron and manganese from water. Aeration and membrane filtration are two of these methods. In this study, Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ removal by aeration with different catalysts and instead of simple membrane filtration applied in [...] Read more.

Many treatment methods are used to remove iron and manganese from water. Aeration and membrane filtration are two of these methods. In this study, Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ removal by aeration with different catalysts and instead of simple membrane filtration applied in other studies, the aerated-submerged membrane systems were evaluated separately. When Fe(OH)₃ was applied in the aeration step and complete oxidation of Fe²⁺ was obtained after 27 min, while complete Mn²⁺ oxidation was obtained in 76 min. However, when MnO₂ was applied in the aeration step, complete oxidation of Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ was relatively slow (36 and 110 min, respectively). According to the results obtained from the aerated membrane system, Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ removal were extended by Fe(OH)₃ via adsorption/surface oxidation. It is clearly shown from the flux, resistance results, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FT/IR) spectroscopy observation that manganese oxides were deposited mainly in membrane pores forming membrane fouling by small flocs, while iron oxide particles were deposited on the membrane surface. Although the flux performance of PT PES membrane was higher than HF PP membrane, fouling resistance of HF PP membrane was higher than PT PES. Full article

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15 pages, 4439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Styrenated Oil Synthesis with Cyclic Carbonate Functional Groups on Polystyrene Segment

by Eser Bingöl and Ahmet Tuncer Erciyes

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2343; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142343 - 17 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3246

Abstract

In this study, an oil-modified copolymer of 4-[(prop-2-en-1-yloxy)methyl]-1,3-dioxolan- 2-one (AGC) with styrene was synthesized, and the resulting copolymer (OBMI-St-AGC) was silane functionalized by inserting (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) into the polymer backbone. OBMI-St-AGC was prepared by using an oil-based macroinitiator (OBMI) obtained by the [...] Read more.

In this study, an oil-modified copolymer of 4-[(prop-2-en-1-yloxy)methyl]-1,3-dioxolan- 2-one (AGC) with styrene was synthesized, and the resulting copolymer (OBMI-St-AGC) was silane functionalized by inserting (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) into the polymer backbone. OBMI-St-AGC was prepared by using an oil-based macroinitiator (OBMI) obtained by the esterification of linseed oil partial glycerides (PGs) with 4,4-azobis-4-cyanopentanoyl chloride (ACPC). In the characterization, FTIR, ¹H NMR, TGA, and DSC analyses were applied. The silane-functionalized copolymer (OBMI-St-AGC-APTES) was crosslinked through the sol–gel process, and its crosslinked structure was determined. Full article

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13 pages, 2883 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Modification of Banana Trunk Fibers for the Production of Green Composites

by Kathiresan V. Sathasivam, Mas Rosemal Hakim Mas Haris, Shivkanya Fuloria, Neeraj Kumar Fuloria, Rishabha Malviya and Vetriselvan Subramaniyan

Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13121943 - 11 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3310

Abstract

Natural fibers have proven to be excellent reinforcing agents in composite materials. However, a critical disadvantage of natural fibers is their hydrophilic nature. In this study, banana trunk fibers were mechanically damaged using a high-speed blender, and the resulting fibers (MDBTF) were treated [...] Read more.

Natural fibers have proven to be excellent reinforcing agents in composite materials. However, a critical disadvantage of natural fibers is their hydrophilic nature. In this study, banana trunk fibers were mechanically damaged using a high-speed blender, and the resulting fibers (MDBTF) were treated with (i) stearic acid (SAMDBTF) and (ii) calcium carbonate coated with 5% (wt/wt) stearic acid (SACCMDBTF). The moisture sorption, oil sorption and thermal properties of the fibers were determined. The morphology, roughness and the functional groups present were also investigated. Study data of the present study indicate that SACCMDBTF exhibited a faster oil sorption capacity than SAMDBTF. Fast uptake of the oil occurred during the first 5 min, whereby the quantity of oil sorbed in SAMDBTF and SACCMDBTF was 5.5 and 15.0 g oil g⁻¹ fiber, respectively. The results of a used engine oil uptake study revealed that SAMDBTF and SACCMDBTF sorbed 9.5 and 18.3 g/g-1 fiber, respectively, at equilibrium. The obtained results suggest that the mechanically damaged process improved the thermal stability of the fibers. This work reveals that the inclusion of stearic-acid-coated calcium carbonate into the interstices of MDBTF yields is environmentally safe for green hydrophobic composites. SACCMDBTF are used as efficient adsorbents for the removal of spilled oil on aqueous media. Full article

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26 pages, 4861 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ultrafine PVDF Nanofibers for Filtration of Air-Borne Particulate Matters: A Comprehensive Review

by Ayishe Sanyal and Sumit Sinha-Ray

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1864; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111864 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6031

Abstract

The ongoing global pandemic has bestowed high priority uponthe separation of air-borne particulate matters (PMs), aerosols, etc. using nonwoven fibrous materials, especially for face masks as a means of personal protection. Although spunbond or meltblown nonwoven materials are amongst the forerunners for polymer [...] Read more.

The ongoing global pandemic has bestowed high priority uponthe separation of air-borne particulate matters (PMs), aerosols, etc. using nonwoven fibrous materials, especially for face masks as a means of personal protection. Although spunbond or meltblown nonwoven materials are amongst the forerunners for polymer microfiber-based face mask or air filter development in mass scale, relatively new process of nonwoven manufacturing such as electrospinning is gaining a lot of momentum amongst the filter membrane manufacturers for its scalability of nanofiber-based filter membrane fabrication. There are several nanofiber-based face masks developing industries, which claim a very high efficiency in filtration of particulate matters (PM_0.1–10) as well as other aerosols for their products. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), which is commonly known for its use of tactile sensors and energy harvesters, due to its piezoelectric property, is slowly gaining popularity among researchers and developers as an air filter material. Electrospun PVDF nanofibers can be as fine as 50 nm in mass scale, which allows the membrane to have large surface area compared to its volume, enhancing nanofiber–PM interaction. At the same time, the breathability index can be improved through these PVDF nanofiber membranes due to their architectural uniqueness that promotes slip flow around the fibers. The conductive nature of PVDF makes it advantageous as a promising electret filter allowing better capturing of ultrafine particles. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of such PVDF nanofiber-based filter membranes and their roles in air filtration, especially its application in filtrate of air-borne PMs. Full article

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9 pages, 2844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Capillary Sensor for Detection of Amphetamine Precursors in Sewage Water

by Monika Wiśnik-Sawka, Mirosław Maziejuk, Wojciech Fabianowski, Urszula Karpińska, Maciej Szwast and Jerzy Weremczuk

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1846; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111846 - 2 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1953

Abstract

This paper deals with the problem of detecting benzyl methyl ketone (BMK), which is a precursor of amphetamine that can be synthesized in home labs. The focus of our work was to identify an improvement for the analysis of sewage introduced into the [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the problem of detecting benzyl methyl ketone (BMK), which is a precursor of amphetamine that can be synthesized in home labs. The focus of our work was to identify an improvement for the analysis of sewage introduced into the municipal sewage system. The sensors used to detect BKM in these systems are often clogged and therefore cannot function properly. In this article, a new method of detecting BMK and other chemicals in wastewater is presented. A system containing capillary polypropylene, hydrophobized with polysiloxane coating fibers was prepared. These solutions were used for continuous online measurements by ion mobility spectrometry. The use of pipes with a polysiloxane coating reduces the permeation of water and significantly increases the BMK permeation due to its high solubility in the polymer. Full article

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23 pages, 4081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing and Characterisation of Polymeric Membranes for Water Treatment and Numerical Investigation of Mechanics of Nanocomposite Membranes

by Seren Acarer, İnci Pir, Mertol Tüfekci, Güler Türkoğlu Demirkol and Neşe Tüfekci

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1661; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101661 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3522

Abstract

In this study, polyethersulfone (PES) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) microfiltration membranes containing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) with and without support layers of 130 and 150 μm thickness are manufactured using the phase inversion method and then experimentally characterised. For the characterisation of membranes, Fourier transform [...] Read more.

In this study, polyethersulfone (PES) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) microfiltration membranes containing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) with and without support layers of 130 and 150 μm thickness are manufactured using the phase inversion method and then experimentally characterised. For the characterisation of membranes, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and pore size analysis are performed, the contact angle and water content of membranes are measured and the tensile test is applied to membranes without support layers. Using the results obtained from the tensile tests, the mechanical properties of the halloysite nanotube (HNT) and nano-silicon dioxide (nano SiO₂) reinforced nanocomposite membranes are approximately determined by the Mori–Tanaka homogenisation method without applying any further mechanical tests. Then, plain polymeric and PES and PVDF based nanocomposite membranes are modelled using the finite element method to determine the effect of the geometry of the membrane on the mechanical behaviour for fifteen different geometries. The modelled membranes compared in terms of three different criteria: equivalent stress (von Mises), displacement, and in-plane principal strain. Based on the data obtained from the characterisation part of the study and the numerical analysis, the membrane with the best performance is determined. The most appropriate shape and material for a membrane for water treatment is specified as a 1% HNT doped PVDF based elliptical membrane. Full article

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18 pages, 6263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Application of the Hydrophobic Polyurethane Foam: Expansive Soil Stabilization

by Mohamed Ezzat Al-Atroush, Omar Shabbir, Bandar Almeshari, Mohamed Waly and Tamer A. Sebaey

Polymers 2021, 13(8), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13081335 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4541

Abstract

The reversible shrink–swell behavior of expansive soil imposes a serious challenge that threatens the overlying structures’ safety and durability. Traditional chemical additives such as lime and cement still exhibit satisfying performance over their counterparts in terms of swelling potential reduction. Nevertheless, significant concerns [...] Read more.

The reversible shrink–swell behavior of expansive soil imposes a serious challenge that threatens the overlying structures’ safety and durability. Traditional chemical additives such as lime and cement still exhibit satisfying performance over their counterparts in terms of swelling potential reduction. Nevertheless, significant concerns are associated with these chemicals, in addition to their environmental impact. This paper proposes a novel application of the closed-cell one-component hydrophobic polyurethane foam (HPUF) to stabilize the swelling soil. An extensive experimental study was performed to assess the efficiency of HPUF in mitigating both the swelling and shrinkage response of high montmorillonite content expansive soil. Expansive soil was injected/mixed with different weight ratios of the proposed stabilizer, and the optimum mixing design and injection percentage of the foam resin were identified to be ranged from 10% to 15%. The shrink–swell behaviors of both injected and noninjected samples were compared. Results of this comparison confirmed that HPUF could competently reduce both the swelling potential and the shrinkage cracking of the reactive expansive soil, even after several wet-shrink cycles. Full article

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4 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Current Trends and Perspectives in the Application of Polymeric Materials to Wastewater Treatment

by Ricardo N. Coimbra and Marta Otero

Polymers 2021, 13(7), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071089 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Water with the necessary quality is indispensable to the functioning of most of the known life forms, being essential to human health, social and economic development, and ecosystems functioning [...] Full article

23 pages, 9300 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymeric Materials Used for Immobilisation of Bacteria for the Bioremediation of Contaminants in Water

by Dmitriy Berillo, Areej Al-Jwaid and Jonathan Caplin

Polymers 2021, 13(7), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071073 - 29 Mar 2021

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 7092

Abstract

Bioremediation is a key process for reclaiming polluted soil and water by the use of biological agents. A commonly used approach aims to neutralise or remove harmful pollutants from contaminated areas using live microorganisms. Generally, immobilised microorganisms rather than planktonic cells have been [...] Read more.

Bioremediation is a key process for reclaiming polluted soil and water by the use of biological agents. A commonly used approach aims to neutralise or remove harmful pollutants from contaminated areas using live microorganisms. Generally, immobilised microorganisms rather than planktonic cells have been used in bioremediation methods. Activated carbon, inorganic minerals (clays, metal oxides, zeolites), and agricultural waste products are acceptable substrates for the immobilisation of bacteria, although there are limitations with biomass loading and the issue with leaching of bacteria during the process. Various synthetic and natural polymers with different functional groups have been used successfully for the efficient immobilisation of microorganisms and cells. Promise has been shown using macroporous materials including cryogels with entrapped bacteria or cells in applications for water treatment and biotechnology. A cryogel is a macroporous polymeric gel formed at sub-zero temperatures through a process known as cryogelation. Macroporous hydrogels have been used to make scaffolds or supports for immobilising bacterial, viral, and other cells. The production of composite materials with immobilised cells possessing suitable mechanical and chemical stability, porosity, elasticity, and biocompatibility suggests that these materials are potential candidates for a range of applications within applied microbiology, biotechnology, and research. This review evaluates applications of macroporous cryogels as tools for the bioremediation of contaminants in wastewater. Full article

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13 pages, 3608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Co-Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework@Cellulose Aerogels from Sugarcane Bagasse for Activating Peroxymonosulfate to Degrade P-Nitrophenol

by Wen Sun, Kunyapat Thummavichai, Ding Chen, Yongxin Lei, Hui Pan, Taize Song, Nannan Wang and Yanqiu Zhu

Polymers 2021, 13(5), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050739 - 27 Feb 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2629

Abstract

An efficient, green and reusable catalyst for organic pollutant wastewater treatment has been a subject of intense research in recent decades due to the limitation of current technologies. Cellulose based aerogel composites are considered to be an especially promising candidate for next-generation catalytic [...] Read more.

An efficient, green and reusable catalyst for organic pollutant wastewater treatment has been a subject of intense research in recent decades due to the limitation of current technologies. Cellulose based aerogel composites are considered to be an especially promising candidate for next-generation catalytic material. This project was conducted in order to evaluate the behavior and ability of green and reusable sugarcane bagasse aerogels to remove P-Nitrophesnol from waste-water aqueous. Co-Zeolitic imidazolate framework@ sugarcane bagasse aerogels composite catalysts were successfully prepared via simple in situ synthesis. The structure of hybrid aerogels and their efficient catalyst in peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation for the degradation of p-nitrophenol (PNP) was investigated. As a result, the hybrid aerogels/PMS system removed 98.5% of PNP (10 mg/L) within 60~70 min, while the traditional water treatment technology could not achieve this. In addition, through a free radical capture experiment and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), the degradation mechanism of PNP was investigated. Further research found that the hybrid aerogels can effectively activate PMS to produce sulfate (

{SO}_{4}^{• -}

) and hydroxyl (

{OH}^{•}

). Both of them contributed to the degradation of PNP, and

{SO}_{4}^{• -}

plays a crucial role in the degradative process. The most important feature of hybrid aerogels can be easily separated from the solution. The obtained results showed that the outer coating structure of cellulose can stabilize Co-ZIF and reduce the dissolution of cobalt ions under complex reaction conditions. Moreover, the prepared hybrid aerogels exhibit excellent reusability and are environmentally friendly with efficient catalytic efficiency. This work provides a new strategy for bagasse applications and material reusability. Full article

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15 pages, 78447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Halloysite Nanotube-Ferrihydrite Incorporated Polyethersulfone Mixed Matrix Membrane: Effect of Nanocomposite Loading on the Antifouling Performance

by Syarifah Nazirah Wan Ikhsan, Norhaniza Yusof, Normi Izati Mat Nawi, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Farhana Aziz and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Polymers 2021, 13(3), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13030441 - 30 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3052

Abstract

Membrane filtration is an attractive process in water and wastewater treatment, but largely restricted by membrane fouling. In this study, the membrane fouling issue is addressed by developing polyethersulfone (PES)-based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) with the incorporation of hydrophilic nanoparticles as an additive. [...] Read more.

Membrane filtration is an attractive process in water and wastewater treatment, but largely restricted by membrane fouling. In this study, the membrane fouling issue is addressed by developing polyethersulfone (PES)-based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) with the incorporation of hydrophilic nanoparticles as an additive. Ultrafiltration MMMs were successfully fabricated by incorporating different loadings of halloysite nanotube-ferrihydrates (HNT-HFO) into a polyethersulfone (PES) matrix and their performance was evaluated for the separation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution and oil/water emulsion. The results show that wettability is endowed to the membrane by introducing the additive aided by the presence of abundant -OH groups from the HFO. The loading of additive also leads to more heterogeneous surface morphology and higher pure water fluxes (516.33–640.82 L/m²h) more than twice that of the pristine membrane as reference (34.69 L/m²h) without affecting the rejection. The MMMs also provide much enhanced antifouling properties. The filtration results indicate that the flux recovery ratio of the modified membrane reached 100% by washing with only distilled water and a total flux recovery ratio of >98% ± 0.0471 for HNT-HFO-loaded membranes in comparison with 59% ± 0.0169 for pristine PES membrane. Full article

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17 pages, 26405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Evaluation of a New Natural Multi-Layered Biopolymeric Adsorbent System-Based Chitosan/Cellulosic Nonwoven Material for the Biosorption of Industrial Textile Effluents

by Yassine EL-Ghoul, Chiraz Ammar, Fahad M. Alminderej and Md. Shafiquzzaman

Polymers 2021, 13(3), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13030322 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

The adsorption phenomenon using low-cost adsorbents that are abundant in nature is of great interest when the adsorbed capacity is significant. A newly designed natural polyelectrolyte multi-layered (PEM) biopolymeric system-based chitosan/modified chitosan polymer and functionalized cellulosic nonwoven material was prepared and used as [...] Read more.

The adsorption phenomenon using low-cost adsorbents that are abundant in nature is of great interest when the adsorbed capacity is significant. A newly designed natural polyelectrolyte multi-layered (PEM) biopolymeric system-based chitosan/modified chitosan polymer and functionalized cellulosic nonwoven material was prepared and used as an effective adsorbent for Reactive Red 198 (RR198) dye solutions. The bio-sorbent was characterized by FTIR, SEM, and thermal (TGA/DTA) analysis. The swelling behavior was also evaluated, showing the great increase of the hydrophilicity of the prepared adsorbent biopolymer. The effect of various process parameters on the performance of RR198 dye removal such as pH, contact time, temperature, and initial dye concentration was studied. The biopolymeric system has shown good efficiency of adsorption compared to other adsorbents based on chitosan polymer. The highest adsorption capacity was found to be 722.3 mgg⁻¹ at pH = 4 (ambient temperature, time = 120 min and dye concentration = 600 mg L⁻¹). The adsorption process fitted well to both pseudo-second-order kinetics and Freundlich/Temkin adsorption isotherm models. Regarding its low cost, easy preparation, and promising efficient adsorption results, this new concepted multi-layered bio-sorbent could be an effective solution for the treatment of industrial wastewater. Full article

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21 pages, 3765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly and Economic, Adsorptive Removal of Cationic and Anionic Dyes by Bio-Based Karaya Gum—Chitosan Sponge

by Rohith K. Ramakrishnan, Vinod V. T. Padil, Stanisław Wacławek, Miroslav Černík and Rajender S. Varma

Polymers 2021, 13(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020251 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4644

Abstract

A novel, lightweight (8 mg/cm³), conjugate sponge of karaya gum (Kg) and chitosan (Ch) has been synthesized with very high porosity (~98%) and chemical stability, as a pH-responsive adsorbent material for the removal of anionic and cationic dyes from aqueous solutions. [...] Read more.

A novel, lightweight (8 mg/cm³), conjugate sponge of karaya gum (Kg) and chitosan (Ch) has been synthesized with very high porosity (~98%) and chemical stability, as a pH-responsive adsorbent material for the removal of anionic and cationic dyes from aqueous solutions. Experimental results showed that Kg-Ch conjugate sponge has good adsorption capacity for anionic dye methyl orange (MO: 32.81 mg/g) and cationic dye methylene blue (MB: 32.62 mg/g). The optimized Kg:Ch composition grants access to the free and pH-dependent ionizable functional groups on the surface of the sponge for the adsorption of dyes. The studies on the adsorption process as a function of pH, adsorbate concentration, adsorbent dose, and contact time indicated that the adsorption capacity of MB was decreased with increasing pH from 5 to 10 and external mass transfer together with intra-particle diffusion. The adsorption isotherm of the anionic dye MO was found to correlate with the Langmuir model (R² = 0.99) while the adsorption of the cationic MB onto the sponge was better described by the Freundlich model (R² = 0.99). Kinetic regression results specified that the adsorption kinetics were well represented by the pseudo-second-order model. The H-bonding, as well as electrostatic interaction between the polymers and the adsorption interactions of dyes onto Kg-Ch sponge from aqueous solutions, were investigated using attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, and the highly wrinkled porous morphology was visualized in depth by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) analysis. Moreover, the samples could be reused without loss of contaminant removal capacity over six successive adsorption-desorption cycles. The hierarchical three-dimensional sponge-like structure of Kg has not been reported yet and this novel Kg-Ch sponge functions as a promising candidate for the uninterrupted application of organic pollutant removal from water. Full article

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2020

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19 pages, 3881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for the Removal of Antide-Pressants from Contaminated Wastewater

by Tjasa Gornik, Sudhirkumar Shinde, Lea Lamovsek, Maja Koblar, Ester Heath, Börje Sellergren and Tina Kosjek

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010120 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4388

Abstract

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants regularly detected in the environment. This indicates that the existing wastewater treatment techniques are not successfully removing them beforehand. This study investigated the potential of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) to serve as sorbents [...] Read more.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants regularly detected in the environment. This indicates that the existing wastewater treatment techniques are not successfully removing them beforehand. This study investigated the potential of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) to serve as sorbents for removal of SSRIs in water treatment. Sertraline was chosen as the template for imprinting. We optimized the composition of MIPs in order to obtain materials with highest capacity, affinity, and selectivity for sertraline. We report the maximum capacity of MIP for sertraline in water at 72.6 mg g⁻¹, and the maximum imprinting factor at 3.7. The MIPs were cross-reactive towards other SSRIs and the metabolite norsertraline. They showed a stable performance in wastewater-relevant pH range between 6 and 8, and were reusable after a short washing cycle. Despite having a smaller surface area between 27.4 and 193.8 m²·g⁻¹, as compared to that of the activated carbon at 1400 m²·g⁻¹, their sorption capabilities in wastewaters were generally superior. The MIPs with higher surface area and pore volume that formed more non-specific interactions with the targets considerably contributed to the overall removal efficiency, which made them better suited for use in wastewater treatment. Full article

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12 pages, 1656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chain Entanglement of 2-Ethylhexyl Hydrogen-2-Ethylhexylphosphonate into Methacrylate-Grafted Nonwoven Fabrics for Applications in Separation and Recovery of Dy (III) and Nd (III) from Aqueous Solution

by Hiroyuki Hoshina, Jinhua Chen, Haruyo Amada and Noriaki Seko

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2656; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112656 - 11 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2096

Abstract

A nonwoven fabric adsorbent loaded with 2-ethylhexyl hydrogen-2-ethylhexylphosphonate (EHEP) was developed for the separation and recovery of dysprosium (Dy) and neodymium (Nd) from an aqueous solution. The adsorbent was prepared by the radiation-induced graft polymerization of a methacrylate monomer with a long alkyl [...] Read more.

A nonwoven fabric adsorbent loaded with 2-ethylhexyl hydrogen-2-ethylhexylphosphonate (EHEP) was developed for the separation and recovery of dysprosium (Dy) and neodymium (Nd) from an aqueous solution. The adsorbent was prepared by the radiation-induced graft polymerization of a methacrylate monomer with a long alkyl chain onto a nonwoven fabric and the subsequent loading of EHEP by hydrophobic interaction and chain entanglement between the alkyl chains. The adsorbent was evaluated by batch and column tests with a Dy (III) and Nd (III) aqueous solution. In the batch tests, the adsorbent showed high Dy (III) adsorptivity close to 25.0 mg/g but low Nd (III) adsorptivity below 1.0 mg/g, indicating that the adsorbent had high selective adsorption. In particular, the octadecyl methacrylate (OMA)-adsorbent showed adsorption stability in repeated tests. In the column tests, the OMA-adsorbent was also stable and showed high Dy (III) adsorptivity and high selectivity in repeated adsorption–elution circle tests. This result suggested that the OMA-adsorbent may be a promising adsorbent for the separation and recovery of Dy (III) and Nd (III) ions. Full article

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21 pages, 4918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crosslinked Carboxymethyl Sago Starch/Citric Acid Hydrogel for Sorption of Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Zn²⁺ from Aqueous Solution

by Amyrah Auni Keirudin, Norhazlin Zainuddin and Nor Azah Yusof

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2465; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112465 - 24 Oct 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7671

Abstract

In the present study, CMSS (carboxymethyl sago starch)-based hydrogel was synthesized by crosslinking with citric acid via esterification and then applied as a metal sorbent to overcome excessive heavy metal pollution. The CMSS/CA (carboxymethyl sago starch/citric acid) hydrogel was characterized by Fourier Transform [...] Read more.

In the present study, CMSS (carboxymethyl sago starch)-based hydrogel was synthesized by crosslinking with citric acid via esterification and then applied as a metal sorbent to overcome excessive heavy metal pollution. The CMSS/CA (carboxymethyl sago starch/citric acid) hydrogel was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The absorption band at 1726 cm⁻¹ was observed in the FT-IR spectrum of CMSS/CA hydrogel and indicated ester bonds formed. Further findings show that the cross-linkages in the CMSS/CA hydrogel increased the thermal stability of CMSS and various sizes of pores were also shown in the SEM micrograph. Conversely, the removal of heavy metals was analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optic Emission Spectra (ICP-OES). The effects of the pH of the metal solution, contact time, initial concentration of the metal ions and temperature on the sorption capacity were investigated. Under optimum condition, the sorption capacity of Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Zn²⁺ onto CMSS/CA hydrogel were 64.48, 36.56, 16.21, 18.45 mg/g, respectively. The experiments demonstrated that CMSS/CA hydrogel has high selectivity towards Pb²⁺ in both non-competitive and competitive conditions. In conclusion, the CMSS/CA hydrogel as a natural based heavy metal sorption material exhibited a promising performance, especially in the sorption of Pb²⁺ for wastewater treatment. Full article

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19 pages, 2223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fouling Mitigation by Cationic Polymer Addition into a Pilot-Scale Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Fed with Blackwater

by Magela Odriozola, Nicolás Morales, Jose R. Vázquez-Padín, Maria Lousada-Ferreira, Henri Spanjers and Jules B. van Lier

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2383; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102383 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2455

Abstract

Cationic polymers have proven to be suitable flux enhancers (FEs) in large-scale aerobic membrane bioreactors (MBRs), whereas in anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBRs) research is scarce, and so far, only done at lab-scale. Results from MBRs cannot be directly translated to AnMBRs because the [...] Read more.

Cationic polymers have proven to be suitable flux enhancers (FEs) in large-scale aerobic membrane bioreactors (MBRs), whereas in anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBRs) research is scarce, and so far, only done at lab-scale. Results from MBRs cannot be directly translated to AnMBRs because the extent and nature of membrane fouling under anaerobic and aerobic conditions are different. Our research focused on the long-term effect of dosing the cationic polymer Adifloc KD451 to a pilot AnMBR, fed with source-separated domestic blackwater. A single dosage of Adifloc KD451 at 50 mg L⁻¹ significantly enhanced the filtration performance in the AnMBR, revealed by a decrease in both fouling rate and total filtration resistance. Nevertheless, FE addition had an immediate negative effect on the specific methanogenic activity (SMA), but this was a reversible process that had no adverse effect on permeate quality or chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal in the AnMBR. Moreover, the FE had a long-term positive effect on AnMBR filtration performance and sludge filterability. These findings indicate that dosing Adifloc KD451 is a suitable strategy for fouling mitigation in AnMBRs because it led to a long-term improvement in filtration performance, while having no significant adverse effects on permeate quality or COD removal. Full article

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15 pages, 4085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Removal and Toxicity Decline of Diclofenac by Combining UVA Treatment and Adsorption of Photoproducts to Polyvinylidene Difluoride

by Kristina Fischer, Stephan Sydow, Jan Griebel, Sergej Naumov, Christian Elsner, Isabell Thomas, Amira Abdul Latif and Agnes Schulze

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2340; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102340 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2887

Abstract

The occurrence of micropollutants in the environment is an emerging issue. Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, is one of the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals in the environment worldwide. Diclofenac is transformed by UVA light into different products with higher toxicity. The absorbance of [...] Read more.

The occurrence of micropollutants in the environment is an emerging issue. Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, is one of the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals in the environment worldwide. Diclofenac is transformed by UVA light into different products with higher toxicity. The absorbance of the transformation products overlaps with the absorbance of diclofenac itself and inhibits the ongoing photoreaction. By adding polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), the products adsorb to the surface of PVDF. Therefore, phototransformation of diclofenac and total organic carbon (TOC) removal is enhanced and the toxicity decreased. At 15 min and 18 h of UVA treatment, removal of diclofenac and TOC increases from 56% to 65% and 18% to 54%, respectively, when PVDF is present. The toxicity of a UVA treated (18 h) diclofenac solution doubles (from 5 to 10, expressed in toxicity units, TU), while no toxicity was detectable when PVDF is present during UVA treatment (TU = 0). PVDF does not need to be irradiated itself but must be present during photoreaction. The adsorbent can be reused by washing with water or ethanol. Diclofenac (25 mg L⁻¹) UVA light irradiation was monitored with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), UV-Vis spectroscopy and by analysing the decrease of TOC. The toxicity towards Vibrio fischeri was examined according to DIN EN ISO 11348-1: 2009-05. Density functional theory (DFT) was used to simulate the phototransformation products known in literature as well as further products identified via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The absorption spectra, reaction enthalpies (ΔH) and Gibbs free energy of reactions (ΔG) were calculated. The combination of UVA irradiation of diclofenac with adsorption of photoproducts to PVDF is unique and opens up new possibilities to enhance removal of pollutants from water. Full article

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15 pages, 8536 KiB

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Kinetic Studies on the Catalytic Degradation of Rhodamine B by Hydrogen Peroxide: Effect of Surfactant Coated and Non-Coated Iron (III) Oxide Nanoparticles

by Mohd Shaban Ansari, Kashif Raees, Moonis Ali Khan, M.Z.A. Rafiquee and Marta Otero

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2246; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102246 - 29 Sep 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4085

Abstract

Iron (III) oxide (Fe₃O₄) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) coated iron (III) oxide (SDS@Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized by the co-precipitation method for application in the catalytic degradation of Rhodamine B (RB) dye. The synthesized [...] Read more.

Iron (III) oxide (Fe₃O₄) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) coated iron (III) oxide (SDS@Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized by the co-precipitation method for application in the catalytic degradation of Rhodamine B (RB) dye. The synthesized NPs were characterized using X-ray diffractometer (XRD), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) spectroscopy techniques and tested in the removal of RB. A kinetic study on RB degradation by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was carried out and the influence of Fe₃O₄ and SDS@Fe₃O₄ magnetic NPs on the degradation rate was assessed. The activity of magnetic NPs, viz. Fe₃O₄ and SDS@Fe₃O₄, in the degradation of RB was spectrophotometrically studied and found effective in the removal of RB dye from water. The rate of RB degradation was found linearly dependent upon H₂O₂ concentration and within 5.0 × 10⁻² to 4.0 × 10⁻¹ M H₂O₂, the observed pseudo-first-order kinetic rates (k_obs, s⁻¹) for the degradation of RB (10 mg L⁻¹) at pH 3 and temperature 25 ± 2 °C were between 0.4 and 1.7 × 10⁴ s⁻¹, while in presence of 0.1% w/v Fe₃O₄ or SDS@Fe₃O₄ NPs, k_obs were between 1.3 and 2.8 × 10⁴ s⁻¹ and between 2.6 and 4.8 × 10⁴ s⁻¹, respectively. Furthermore, in presence of Fe₃O₄ or SDS@Fe₃O₄, k_obs increased with NPs dosage and showed a peaked pH behavior with a maximum at pH 3. The magnitude of thermodynamic parameters E_a and ΔH for RB degradation in presence of SDS@Fe₃O₄ were 15.63 kJ mol⁻¹ and 13.01 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively, lowest among the used catalysts, confirming its effectiveness during degradation. Furthermore, SDS in the presence of Fe₃O₄ NPs and H₂O₂ remarkably enhanced the rate of RB degradation. Full article

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11 pages, 1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro-Oxygenation in Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Bed (UASB) Reactors Using a Silicon Membrane for Sulfide Oxidation

by Freddy Valdés, Priscila Rosseto Camiloti, Jan Bartacek, Álvaro Torres-Aravena, Javiera Toledo-Alarcón, Marcelo Zaiat and David Jeison

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 1990; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12091990 - 1 Sep 2020

Viewed by 2450

Abstract

Sulfide produced by sulphate-reducing bacteria in anaerobic reactors can seriously affect biogas quality. Microaeration has become a reliable way to remove sulfide, by promoting its oxidation. However, limited research is available regarding its application in upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactors. In this [...] Read more.

Sulfide produced by sulphate-reducing bacteria in anaerobic reactors can seriously affect biogas quality. Microaeration has become a reliable way to remove sulfide, by promoting its oxidation. However, limited research is available regarding its application in upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactors. In this research, silicon membranes were studied as a mechanism to dose oxygen in USAB reactors. Two configurations were tested: the membrane placed inside the reactor or in an external module. Our results show that the external membrane proved to be a more practical alternative, providing conditions for sulfide oxidation. This led to a reduction in its concentration in the liquid effluent and biogas. External membrane configuration achieved a sulfide conversion rate of 2.4 g-S m² d⁻¹. Since the membrane was not sulfide-selective, methane losses were observed (about 9%). In addition, excessive oxygen consumption was observed, compared to the stoichiometric requirement. As is the case for many membrane-based systems, membrane area is a key factor determining the correct operation of the system. Full article

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17 pages, 11545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Biocidal Effect of Microfiltration Membranes Impregnated with Silver Nanoparticles by Sputtering Technique

by Aline M. F. Linhares, Cristiano P. Borges and Fabiana V. Fonseca

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1686; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081686 - 29 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2570

Abstract

Silver nanoparticles were loaded in microfiltration membranes by sputtering technique for the development of biocidal properties and biofouling resistance. This technology allows good adhesion between silver nanoparticles and the membranes, and fast deposition rate. The microfiltration membranes (15 wt.% polyethersulfone and 7.5 wt.% [...] Read more.

Silver nanoparticles were loaded in microfiltration membranes by sputtering technique for the development of biocidal properties and biofouling resistance. This technology allows good adhesion between silver nanoparticles and the membranes, and fast deposition rate. The microfiltration membranes (15 wt.% polyethersulfone and 7.5 wt.% polyvinylpyrrolidone in N,N-dimethylacetamide) were prepared by phase inversion method, and silver nanoparticles were deposited on their surface by the physical technique of vapor deposition in a sputtering chamber. The membranes were characterized by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy, and the presence of silver was investigated by Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy and X-ray Diffraction. Experiments of silver leaching were carried out through immersion and filtration tests. After 10 months of immersion in water, the membranes still presented ~90% of the initial silver, which confirms the efficiency of the sputtering technique. Moreover, convective experiments indicated that 98.8% of silver remained in the membrane after 24 h of operation. Biocidal analyses (disc diffusion method and biofouling resistance) were performed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and confirmed the antibacterial activity of these membranes with 0.6 and 0.7 log reduction of viable planktonic and sessile cells, respectively. These results indicate the great potential of these new membranes to reduce biofouling effects. Full article

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14 pages, 1831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption Behavior of Polyelectrolyte onto Alumina and Application in Ciprofloxacin Removal

by Thi Huong Dao, Ngoc Trung Nguyen, Minh Ngoc Nguyen, Cao Long Ngo, Nhu Hai Luong, Duy Binh Le and Tien Duc Pham

Polymers 2020, 12(7), 1554; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12071554 - 14 Jul 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3662

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the adsorption behavior of a strong polyelectrolyte poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) onto alumina particles. Adsorption of PSS onto positively charged alumina surface increased with increasing ionic strength, indicating that non-electrostatic and electrostatic interaction controlled the adsorption. The removal of an [...] Read more.

This study aims to investigate the adsorption behavior of a strong polyelectrolyte poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) onto alumina particles. Adsorption of PSS onto positively charged alumina surface increased with increasing ionic strength, indicating that non-electrostatic and electrostatic interaction controlled the adsorption. The removal of an emerging antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CFX) from water environment using PSS-modified alumina (PMA) was also studied. The removal of CFX using PMA was much higher than that using alumina particles without PSS modification in all pH ranges of 2–11. The removal of CFX reached 98% under the optimum conditions of pH 6, contact time of 120 min, adsorbent dosage of five milligrams per milliliter and ionic strength 10⁴-M NaCl. The adsorption isotherms of CFX at different salt concentrations fit well with a two-step adsorption model, while the adsorption kinetic fit well with a pseudo-second-order model with a good correlation coefficient (R² > 0.9969). The CFX-removal from a hospital wastewater using PMA was more than 75%. Our study demonstrates that adsorption of PSS onto alumina to modify the particle surface is important to form a novel adsorbent PMA for CFX-removal from water environments. Full article

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21 pages, 3953 KiB

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Core−Shell Molecularly Imprinted Polymers on Magnetic Yeast for the Removal of Sulfamethoxazole from Water

by Liang Qiu, Guilaine Jaria, María Victoria Gil, Jundong Feng, Yaodong Dai, Valdemar I. Esteves, Marta Otero and Vânia Calisto

Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1385; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061385 - 20 Jun 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3397

Abstract

In this work, magnetic yeast (MY) was produced through an in situ one-step method. Then, MY was used as the core and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (SMX) as the template to produce highly selective magnetic yeast-molecularly imprinted polymers (MY@MIPs). The physicochemical properties of MY@MIPs [...] Read more.

In this work, magnetic yeast (MY) was produced through an in situ one-step method. Then, MY was used as the core and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (SMX) as the template to produce highly selective magnetic yeast-molecularly imprinted polymers (MY@MIPs). The physicochemical properties of MY@MIPs were assessed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), specific surface area (S_BET) determination, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Batch adsorption experiments were carried out to compare MY@MIPs with MY and MY@NIPs (magnetic yeast-molecularly imprinted polymers without template), with MY@MIPs showing a better performance in the removal of SMX from water. Adsorption of SMX onto MY@MIPs was described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm, with maximum adsorption capacities of 77 and 24 mg g⁻¹ from ultrapure and wastewater, respectively. Furthermore, MY@MIPs displayed a highly selective adsorption toward SMX in the presence of other pharmaceuticals, namely diclofenac (DCF) and carbamazepine (CBZ). Finally, regeneration experiments showed that SMX adsorption decreased 21 and 34% after the first and second regeneration cycles, respectively. This work demonstrates that MY@MIPs are promising sorbent materials for the selective removal of SMX from wastewater. Full article

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18 pages, 4822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polystyrene Magnetic Nanocomposites as Antibiotic Adsorbents

by Leili Mohammadi, Abbas Rahdar, Razieh Khaksefidi, Aliyeh Ghamkhari, Georgios Fytianos and George Z. Kyzas

Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061313 - 9 Jun 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 3898

Abstract

There are different ways for antibiotics to enter the aquatic environment, with wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) considered to be one of the main points of entrance. Even treated wastewater effluent can contain antibiotics, since WWTP cannot eliminate the presence of antibiotics. Therefore, adsorption [...] Read more.

There are different ways for antibiotics to enter the aquatic environment, with wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) considered to be one of the main points of entrance. Even treated wastewater effluent can contain antibiotics, since WWTP cannot eliminate the presence of antibiotics. Therefore, adsorption can be a sustainable option, compared to other tertiary treatments. In this direction, a versatile synthesis of poly(styrene-block-acrylic acid) diblock copolymer/Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanocomposite (abbreviated as P(St-b-AAc)/Fe₃O₄)) was achieved for environmental applications, and particularly for the removal of antibiotic compounds. For this reason, the synthesis of the P(St-b-AAc) diblock copolymer was conducted with a reversible addition fragmentation transfer (RAFT) method. Monodisperse superparamagnetic nanocomposite with carboxylic acid groups of acrylic acid was adsorbed on the surface of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. The nanocomposites were characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) analysis. Then, the nanoparticles were applied to remove ciprofloxacin (antibiotic drug compound) from aqueous solutions. The effects of various parameters, such as initial drug concentration, solution pH, adsorbent dosage, and contact time on the process were extensively studied. Operational parameters and their efficacy in the removal of Ciprofloxacin were studied. Kinetic and adsorption isothermal studies were also carried out. The maximum removal efficiency of ciprofloxacin (97.5%) was found at an initial concentration of 5 mg/L, pH 7, adsorbent’s dosage 2 mg/L, contact time equal to 37.5 min. The initial concentration of antibiotic and the dose of the adsorbent presented the highest impact on efficiency. The adsorption of ciprofloxacin was better fitted to Langmuir isotherm (R² = 0.9995), while the kinetics were better fitted to second-order kinetic equation (R² = 0.9973). Full article

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15 pages, 3902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composite Polymeric Cryogel Cartridges for Selective Removal of Cadmium Ions from Aqueous Solutions

by Sabina Huseynli, Monireh Bakhshpour, Tahira Qureshi, Muge Andac and Adil Denizli

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1149; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051149 - 18 May 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2885

Abstract

In this study, composite polymeric cryogel cartridges were achieved by using Cd(II) imprinted poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate N-methacryloly-(L)-cysteine methylester) beads and poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) cryogel cartridges with two different mole ratios of functional monomer. The N-methacryloly-(L)-cysteinemethylester was used as a functional monomer and Cd(II) 1:1 and [...] Read more.

In this study, composite polymeric cryogel cartridges were achieved by using Cd(II) imprinted poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate N-methacryloly-(L)-cysteine methylester) beads and poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) cryogel cartridges with two different mole ratios of functional monomer. The N-methacryloly-(L)-cysteinemethylester was used as a functional monomer and Cd(II) 1:1 and 2:1, which were then notated as MIP1 and MIP2, respectively. Various characterization methods have confirmed the structural transformation on the MIP1 and MIP2 composite cryogel cartridges by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy-Attenuated Total Reflectance, and swelling tests. The maximum amount of Cd(II) adsorption with composite cryogel cartridges was determined by altering the Cd(II) initial concentration, temperature, and pH values. The maximum adsorption capacity of MIP1 and MIP2 composite cryogel cartridges obtained was 76.35 and 98.8 µmol/g of composite cryogels, respectively. The adsorption studies revealed that the MIP2 possessed a good adsorption performance for Cd(II). The obtained composite cryogel cartridges have a selective, reusable, and cost-friendly potential for the removal of Cd(II) from aqueous solutions, and are used many times without decreasing their adsorption capacities significantly. The Cd(II) removal rate of the MIP1 and MIP2 composite cryogel cartridges from synthetic wastewater samples was determined as 98.8%. The obtained cryogel cartridges’ adsorption material exhibited a good directional removal performance for Cd(II) from wastewater samples. Full article

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25 pages, 3001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Biodegradable Magnetic Nanocomposite as a Superabsorbent for the Simultaneous Removal of Selected Fluoroquinolones from Environmental Water Matrices: Isotherm, Kinetics, Thermodynamic Studies and Cost Analysis

by Geaneth Pertunia Mashile, Kgokgobi Mogolodi Dimpe and Philiswa Nosizo Nomngongo

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051102 - 12 May 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 3341

Abstract

The application of a magnetic mesoporous carbon/β-cyclodextrin–chitosan (MMPC/Cyc-Chit) nanocomposite for the adsorptive removal of danofloxacin (DANO), enrofloxacin (ENRO) and levofloxacin (LEVO) from aqueous and environmental samples is reported in this study. The morphology and surface characteristics of the magnetic nanocomposite were investigated by [...] Read more.

The application of a magnetic mesoporous carbon/β-cyclodextrin–chitosan (MMPC/Cyc-Chit) nanocomposite for the adsorptive removal of danofloxacin (DANO), enrofloxacin (ENRO) and levofloxacin (LEVO) from aqueous and environmental samples is reported in this study. The morphology and surface characteristics of the magnetic nanocomposite were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) adsorption–desorption and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The N₂ adsorption–desorption results revealed that the prepared nanocomposite was mesoporous and the BET surface area was 1435 m² g⁻¹. The equilibrium data for adsorption isotherms were analyzed using two and three isotherm parameters. Based on the correlation coefficients (R²), the Langmuir and Sips isotherm described the data better than others. The maximum monolayer adsorption capacities of MMPC/Cyc-Chit nanocomposite for DANO, ENRO and LEVO were 130, 195 and 165 mg g⁻¹, respectively. Adsorption thermodynamic studies performed proved that the adsorption process was endothermic and was dominated by chemisorption. Full article

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21 pages, 4201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Permeability and Antifouling Augmentation of a Hybrid PVDF-PEG Membrane Using Nano-Magnesium Oxide as a Powerful Mediator for POME Decolorization

by Mohammed Abdulsalam, Hasfalina Che Man, Pei Sean Goh, Khairul Faezah Yunos, Zurina Zainal Abidin, Aida Isma M.I. and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Polymers 2020, 12(3), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030549 - 3 Mar 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3888

Abstract

This study focused on developing a hydrophilic hybrid polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) hollow membrane by incorporating Nano-magnesium oxide (NMO) as a potent antifouling mediator. The Nano-hybrid hollow fibers with varied loading of NMO (0 g; 0.25 g; 0.50 g; 0.75 g and [...] Read more.

This study focused on developing a hydrophilic hybrid polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) hollow membrane by incorporating Nano-magnesium oxide (NMO) as a potent antifouling mediator. The Nano-hybrid hollow fibers with varied loading of NMO (0 g; 0.25 g; 0.50 g; 0.75 g and 1.25 g) were spun through phase inversion technique. The resultants Nano-hybrid fibers were characterized and compared based on SEM, EDX, contact angle, surface zeta-potential, permeability flux, fouling resistance and color rejection from palm oil mill effluent (POME). Noticeably, the permeability flux, fouling resistance and color rejection improved with the increase in NMO loading. PVDF-PEG with 0.50 g-NMO loading displayed an outstanding performance with 198.35 L/m²·h, 61.33 L/m²·h and 74.65% of water flux, POME flux and color rejection from POME, respectively. More so, a remarkable fouling resistance were obtained such that the flux recovery, reversible fouling percentage and irreversible fouling percentage remains relatively steady at 90.98%, 61.39% and 7.68%, respectively, even after 3 cycles of continuous filtrations for a total period of 9 h. However, at excess loading of 0.75 and 1.25 g-NMO, deterioration in the flux and fouling resistance was observed. This was due to the agglomeration of nanoparticles within the matrix structure at the excessive loading. Full article

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12 pages, 1377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Rhodamine B from Water Using a Solvent Impregnated Polymeric Dowex 5WX8 Resin: Statistical Optimization and Batch Adsorption Studies

by Moonis Ali Khan, Momina, Masoom Raza Siddiqui, Marta Otero, Shareefa Ahmed Alshareef and Mohd Rafatullah

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020500 - 24 Feb 2020

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 4271

Abstract

Herein, commercially available Dowex 5WX8, a cation exchange polymeric resin, was modified through solvent impregnation with t-butyl phosphate (TBP) to produce a solvent impregnated resin (SIR), which was tested for the removal of rhodamine B (RhB) from water in batch adsorption experiments. The [...] Read more.

Herein, commercially available Dowex 5WX8, a cation exchange polymeric resin, was modified through solvent impregnation with t-butyl phosphate (TBP) to produce a solvent impregnated resin (SIR), which was tested for the removal of rhodamine B (RhB) from water in batch adsorption experiments. The effect of SIR dosage, contact time, and pH on RhB adsorption was studied and optimized by response surface methodology (RSM), interaction, Pareto, and surface plots. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were respectively used for characterizing SIR surface morphology and identifying active binding sites before and after RhB adsorption. SEM showed that the pristine SIR surface was covered with irregular size and shape spots with some pores, while RhB saturated SIR surface was non-porous. FTIR revealed the involvement of electrostatic and π–π interactions during RhB adsorption on SIR. Dosage of SIR, contact time, and their interaction significantly affected RhB adsorption on SIR, while pH and its interaction with dosage and contact time did not. The optimum identified experimental conditions were 0.16 g of SIR dose and 27.66 min of contact time, which allowed for 98.45% color removal. Moreover, RhB adsorption equilibrium results fitted the Langmuir isotherm with a maximum monolayer capacity (q_max) of 43.47 mg/g. Full article

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16 pages, 10548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activated Carbon Microsphere from Sodium Lignosulfonate for Cr(VI) Adsorption Evaluation in Wastewater Treatment

by Keyan Yang, Jingchen Xing, Pingping Xu, Jianmin Chang, Qingfa Zhang and Khan Muhammad Usman

Polymers 2020, 12(1), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010236 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4635

Abstract

In this study, activated carbon microsphere (SLACM) was prepared from powdered sodium lignosulfonate (SL) and polystyrene by the Mannich reaction and ZnCl₂ activation, which can be used to remove Cr(VI) from the aqueous solution without adding any binder. The SLACM was characterized [...] Read more.

In this study, activated carbon microsphere (SLACM) was prepared from powdered sodium lignosulfonate (SL) and polystyrene by the Mannich reaction and ZnCl₂ activation, which can be used to remove Cr(VI) from the aqueous solution without adding any binder. The SLACM was characterized and the batch experiments were conducted under different initial pH values, initial concentrations, contact time durations and temperatures to investigate the adsorption performance of Cr(VI) onto SLACM. The results indicated that the SLACM surface area and average pore size were 769.37 m²/g and 2.46 nm (the mesoporous material), respectively. It was found that the reduced initial pH value, the increased temperature and initial Cr(VI) concentration were beneficial to Cr(VI) adsorption. The maximum adsorption capacity of Cr(VI) on SLACM was 227.7 mg/g at an initial pH value of 2 and the temperature of 40 °C. The adsorption of SLACM for Cr(VI) mainly occurred during the initial stages of the adsorption process. The adsorption kinetic and isotherm experimental data were thoroughly described by Elovich and Langmuir models, respectively. SL could be considered as a potential raw material for the production of activated carbon, which had a considerable potential for the Cr(VI) removal from wastewater. Full article

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2019

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14 pages, 6435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dopamine Grafted Iron-Loaded Waste Silk for Fenton-Like Removal of Toxic Water Pollutants

by Md Shipan Mia, Biaobiao Yan, Xiaowei Zhu, Tieling Xing and Guoqiang Chen

Polymers 2019, 11(12), 2037; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11122037 - 9 Dec 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3320

Abstract

Dispersion of iron was achieved on waste silk fibers (wSF) after grafting of polydopamine (PDA). The catalytic activity of the resulting material (wSF-DA/Fe) was investigated in Fenton-like removal of toxic aromatic dyes (Methylene Blue, Cationic Violet X-5BLN, and Reactive Orange GRN) water. The [...] Read more.

Dispersion of iron was achieved on waste silk fibers (wSF) after grafting of polydopamine (PDA). The catalytic activity of the resulting material (wSF-DA/Fe) was investigated in Fenton-like removal of toxic aromatic dyes (Methylene Blue, Cationic Violet X-5BLN, and Reactive Orange GRN) water. The dye removal yield reached 98%, 99%, and 98% in 10–40 min for Methylene Blue, Cationic Violet X-5BLN, and Reactive Orange GRN, respectively. The catalytic activity was explained in terms of the effects of temperature, dyes, and electrolytes. In addition, the kinetic study showed that the removal of dyes followed pseudo-1st order adsorption kinetics. These findings allow envisaging the preparation of fiber-based catalysts for potential uses in environmental and green chemistry. Full article

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