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13 pages, 2780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Validation of Ultrasonic Probes in Liquid Level Monitoring Systems

by Wanjia Gao, Wenyi Liu, Fei Li and Yanjun Hu

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041320 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3002

Abstract

Selecting and designing the optimum ultrasonic probe is vital for ultrasonic measurements and experiments. The amplitude of the emitted ultrasonic wave excitation signal as well as the diameter and the natural frequency of the probe seriously affect the validity of the probe results. [...] Read more.

Selecting and designing the optimum ultrasonic probe is vital for ultrasonic measurements and experiments. The amplitude of the emitted ultrasonic wave excitation signal as well as the diameter and the natural frequency of the probe seriously affect the validity of the probe results. In this paper, we analyze the significance of the key parameters of the ultrasonic probe theoretically. Further, an external fixed-point liquid level monitoring system was assembled according to the principle of ultrasonic reflection and transmission. On this experimental platform, we study the key parameters of the ultrasonic probe that affect the system evaluation through a simulation and experiment, and select the optimal sensor parameters for this experiment. The evaluations show that under the experimental conditions where the tested container is made of aluminum alloy and its wall thickness is 3 mm, the best results are obtained when the diameter of the ultrasonic sensor is 15 mm, the amplitude of the emitted excitation signal is ±15 V, and the frequency is 1 MHz. The results’ average deviation is less than ±0.22 V. The evaluations are consistent with the simulation results. This research can effectively monitor the liquid in the closed, ultra-thin-walled container, and can realize non-contact measurement. It provides an effective basis for the parameters selection and design of the ultrasonic probe in the ultrasonic-based experiments and tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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14 pages, 1695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of a Parametric Method for the Snow Reflection Coefficient Estimation Using Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Waves

by Krzysztof Herman, Tadeusz Gudra, Krzysztof Opieliński, Dariusz Banasiak, Tomasz Budzik and Nathalie Risso

Sensors 2020, 20(15), 4267; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20154267 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2875

Abstract

In this paper, a method for estimating snow pressure reflection coefficient based on non-contact ultrasound examination is described. A constant frequency and air-coupled ultrasound pulses were used in this study, which incorporates a parametric method for reflected energy estimation. The experimental part was [...] Read more.

In this paper, a method for estimating snow pressure reflection coefficient based on non-contact ultrasound examination is described. A constant frequency and air-coupled ultrasound pulses were used in this study, which incorporates a parametric method for reflected energy estimation. The experimental part was carried out in situ in the Antarctic, where the snow parameters were measured along with meteorological data. The proposed method represents a promising alternative for estimating the snow-water equivalent, since it uses a parametric approach, which does not require measurements of absolute values for acoustic pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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16 pages, 27325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasonic Sensor Fusion Inverse Algorithm for Visually Impaired Aiding Applications

by György Kovács and Szilvia Nagy

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3682; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133682 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4406

Abstract

Depth mapping can be carried out by ultrasound measuring devices using the time of flight method. Ultrasound measurements are favorable in such environments, where the light or radio frequency measurements can not be applied due to the noise level, calculation complexity, reaction time, [...] Read more.

Depth mapping can be carried out by ultrasound measuring devices using the time of flight method. Ultrasound measurements are favorable in such environments, where the light or radio frequency measurements can not be applied due to the noise level, calculation complexity, reaction time, size and price of the device, accuracy or electromagnetic compatibility. It is also usual to apply and fusion ultrasound sensors with other types of sensors to increase the precision and reliability. In the case of visually impaired people, an echolocation based aid for determining the distance and the direction of obstacles in the surroundings can improve the life quality by giving the possibility to move alone and individually in unlearnt or rapidly changing environments. In the following considerations, a model system is presented which can provide rather reliable position and distance to multiple objects. The mathematical model based on the time of flight method with a correction: it uses the measured analog sensor signals, which represent the probability of the presence of an obstacle. The device consists of multiple receivers, but only one source. The sensor fusion algorithm for this setup and the results of indoor experiments are presented. The mathematical model allows the usage, processing, and fusion of the signals of up to an infinite number of sensors. In addition, the positions of the sensors can be arbitrary, and the mathematical model does not restrict them to be placed in regular formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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20 pages, 5163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ultrasonic Rheometer to Measure Gas Absorption in Ionic Liquids: Design, Calibration and Testing

by Michele Schirru and Michael Adler

Sensors 2020, 20(12), 3544; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20123544 - 23 Jun 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2455

Abstract

The first goal of this study is to identify the ideal piezoelectric material for the manufacturing of rheological reflectance ultrasonic sensors. The second goal is to integrate the ultrasonic rheometer within a gas absorption reactor and to measure viscosity changes in an ionic [...] Read more.

The first goal of this study is to identify the ideal piezoelectric material for the manufacturing of rheological reflectance ultrasonic sensors. The second goal is to integrate the ultrasonic rheometer within a gas absorption reactor and to measure viscosity changes in an ionic liquid (IL) caused by gas absorption. To achieve the objectives, bismuth titanate, lead titanate, lead metaniobate and lead zirconate titanate materials in layer, tungsten bronze and perovskite structures were assembled on aluminum delay lines and tested under thermal cycling between room temperature and 150 °C. The results showed that lead metaniobate in tungsten bronze structure is the most suitable material for long time duration thermal cycling. Therefore, the ultrasonic rheometer was assembled using this material and installed in a pressurized reactor to test a reference IL at the operating conditions of 50 °C and at a pressure of 80 bar. The reference IL was saturated with nitrogen as well as hydrogen gas. Viscosity signals remained constant under the hydrogen atmosphere, while in nitrogen atmosphere the absorption of the gas lead to a rise in the value of viscosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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19 pages, 6374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Accurate Resonant Frequency Controlled Wire Ultrasound Surgical Instrument

by Jungsuk Kim, Kyeongjin Kim, Sun-Ho Choe and Hojong Choi

Sensors 2020, 20(11), 3059; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113059 - 28 May 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4239

Abstract

Our developed wire ultrasound surgical instrument comprises a bolt-clamped Langevin ultrasonic transducer (BLUT) fabricated by PMN-PZT single crystal material due to high mechanical quality factor and electromechanical coupling coefficient, a waveguide in the handheld instrument, and a generator instrument. To ensure high performance [...] Read more.

Our developed wire ultrasound surgical instrument comprises a bolt-clamped Langevin ultrasonic transducer (BLUT) fabricated by PMN-PZT single crystal material due to high mechanical quality factor and electromechanical coupling coefficient, a waveguide in the handheld instrument, and a generator instrument. To ensure high performance of wire ultrasound surgical instruments, the BLUT should vibrate at an accurate frequency because the BLUT’s frequency influences hemostasis and the effects of incisions on blood vessels and tissues. Therefore, we implemented a BLUT with a waveguide in the handheld instrument using a developed assembly jig process with impedance and network analyzers that can accurately control the compression force using a digital torque wrench. A generator instrument having a main control circuit with a low error rate, that is, an output frequency error rate within ±0.5% and an output voltage error rate within ±1.6%, was developed to generate the accurate frequency of the BLUT in the handheld instrument. In addition, a matching circuit between the BLUT and generator instrument with a network analyzer was developed to transfer displacement vibration efficiently from the handheld instrument to the end of the waveguide. Using the matching circuit, the measured S-parameter value of the generator instrument using a network analyzer was −24.3 dB at the resonant frequency. Thus, our proposed scheme can improve the vibration amplitude and accuracy of frequency control of the wire ultrasound surgical instrument due to developed PMN-PZT material and assembly jig process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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15 pages, 11070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexible Ultrasonic Transducer Array with Bulk PZT for Adjuvant Treatment of Bone Injury

by Huicong Liu, Jiangjun Geng, Qifeng Zhu, Lue Zhang, Fengxia Wang, Tao Chen and Lining Sun

Sensors 2020, 20(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010086 - 22 Dec 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6397

Abstract

Flexible electronic devices are developing rapidly, especially in medical applications. This paper reports an arrayed flexible piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (FPMUT) with a sandwich structure for adjuvant treatment of bone injury. To make the device conformable and stretchable for attaching to the skin [...] Read more.

Flexible electronic devices are developing rapidly, especially in medical applications. This paper reports an arrayed flexible piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (FPMUT) with a sandwich structure for adjuvant treatment of bone injury. To make the device conformable and stretchable for attaching to the skin surface, the flexible substrate of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was combined with the flexible metal line interconnection between the bulk lead zirconate titanate (PZT) arrays. Simulations and experiments were carried out to verify the resonant frequency and tensile property of the reported FPMUT device. The device had a resonant frequency of 321.15 KHz and a maximum sound pressure level (SPL) of 180.19 dB at the distance of 5 cm in water. In addition, detailed experiments were carried out to test its acoustic performance with different pork tissues, and the results indicated good ultrasound penetration. These findings confirm that the FPMUT shows unique advantages for adjuvant treatment of bone injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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27 pages, 8915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Sub-Bottom Profiler and Signal Processor

by Cheng Tan, Xuebo Zhang, Peixuan Yang and Miao Sun

Sensors 2019, 19(22), 5052; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19225052 - 19 Nov 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3305

Abstract

In this paper, we introduce a novel sub-bottom profiler, making good use of the Mills cross configuration of multibeam sonar and synthetic aperture techniques of the synthetic aperture sonar system. The receiver array is mounted along the ship keel, while the transmitter array [...] Read more.

In this paper, we introduce a novel sub-bottom profiler, making good use of the Mills cross configuration of multibeam sonar and synthetic aperture techniques of the synthetic aperture sonar system. The receiver array is mounted along the ship keel, while the transmitter array is mounted perpendicular to the receiver array. With the synthetic aperture technique, the along-track resolution can be greatly improved. The system often suffers from motion error, which severely degrades the imaging performance. To solve this problem, the imaging algorithm with motion compensation (MC) is proposed. With the presented method, the motion error is first estimated based on overlapped elements between successive pulses. Then, the echo data is processed by using the range migration algorithm based on the phase center approximation (PCA) method, which simultaneously performs the MC with the estimated motion error. In order to validate the proposed sub-bottom profiler and data processing method, some simulations and lake trial results are discussed. The processing results of the real data further indicate that the presented configuration has great potential to find buried objects in seabed sediments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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10 pages, 3053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Adult Zebrafish Heart Regeneration Using High-Frequency Ultrasound Spectral Doppler and Nakagami Imaging

by Sunmi Yeo, Changhan Yoon, Ching-Ling Lien, Tai-Kyong Song and K. Kirk Shung

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4094; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194094 - 22 Sep 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2948

Abstract

This paper reports the feasibility of Nakagami imaging in monitoring the regeneration process of zebrafish hearts in a noninvasive manner. In addition, spectral Doppler waveforms that are typically used to access the diastolic function were measured to validate the performance of Nakagami imaging. [...] Read more.

This paper reports the feasibility of Nakagami imaging in monitoring the regeneration process of zebrafish hearts in a noninvasive manner. In addition, spectral Doppler waveforms that are typically used to access the diastolic function were measured to validate the performance of Nakagami imaging. A 30-MHz high-frequency ultrasound array transducer was used to acquire backscattered echo signal for spectral Doppler and Nakagami imaging. The performances of both methods were validated with flow and tissue-mimicking phantom experiments. For in vivo experiments, both spectral Doppler and Nakagami imaging were simultaneously obtained from adult zebrafish with amputated hearts. Longitudinal measurements were performed for five zebrafish. From the experiments, the E/A ratio measured using spectral Doppler imaging increased at 3 days post-amputation (3 dpa) and then decreased to the value before amputation, which were consistent with previous studies. Similar results were obtained from the Nakagami imaging where the Nakagami parameter value increased at 3 dpa and decreased to its original value. These results suggested that the Nakagami and spectral Doppler imaging would be useful techniques in monitoring the regeneration of heart or tissues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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15 pages, 5050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Research on the Nonlinear Ultrasonic Detection of the Porosity of Porous Material Based on Dynamic Wavelet Fingerprint Technology

by Xianghong Wang, Chenglong He, Wei Xie and Hongwei Hu

Sensors 2019, 19(15), 3328; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19153328 - 29 Jul 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3516

Abstract

Porosity is an important characteristic of porous material, which affects mechanical and material properties. In order to solve the problem that the large distribution range of pore size of porous materials leads to the large detection errors of porosity, the non-linear ultrasonic testing [...] Read more.

Porosity is an important characteristic of porous material, which affects mechanical and material properties. In order to solve the problem that the large distribution range of pore size of porous materials leads to the large detection errors of porosity, the non-linear ultrasonic testing technique is applied. A graphite composite was used as the experimental object in the study. As the accuracy of porosity is directly related with feature extraction, the dynamic wavelet fingerprint (DWFP) technology was utilized to extract the feature parameter of the ultrasonic signals. The effects of the wavelet function, scale factor, and white slice ratio on the extraction of the nonlinear feature are discussed. The SEM photos were conducted using gray value to identify the aperture. The relationship between pore diameter and detection accuracy was studied. Its results show that the DWFP technology could identify the second harmonic component well, and the extracted nonlinear feature could be used for the quantitative trait of porosity. The larger the proportion of the small diameter holes and the smaller the aperture distribution range was, the smaller the error was. This preliminary research aimed to improve the nondestructive testing accuracy of porosity and it is beneficial to the application of porous material in the manufacturing field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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7 pages, 2041 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Multi-Level Information Storage Using Engineered Electromechanical Resonances of Piezoelectric Wafers: A Concept Piezoelectric Quick Response (PQR) Code

by Christopher Hakoda, Eric S. Davis, Cristian Pantea and Vamshi Krishna Chillara

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6344; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216344 - 06 Nov 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1823

Abstract

A piezoelectric-based method for information storage is presented. It involves engineering the polarization profiles of multiple piezoelectric wafers to enhance/suppress specific electromechanical resonances. These enhanced/suppressed resonances can be used to represent multiple frequency-dependent bits, thus enabling multi-level information storage. This multi-level information storage [...] Read more.

A piezoelectric-based method for information storage is presented. It involves engineering the polarization profiles of multiple piezoelectric wafers to enhance/suppress specific electromechanical resonances. These enhanced/suppressed resonances can be used to represent multiple frequency-dependent bits, thus enabling multi-level information storage. This multi-level information storage is demonstrated by achieving three information states for a ternary encoding. Using the three information states, we present an approach to encode and decode information from a 2-by-3 array of piezoelectric wafers that we refer to as a concept Piezoelectric Quick Response (PQR) code. The scaling relation between the number of wafers used and the cumulative number of information states that can be achieved with the proposed methodology is briefly discussed. Potential applications of this methodology include tamper-evident devices, embedded product tags in manufacturing/inventory tracking, and additional layers of security with existing information storage technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors 2019–2020)

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