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Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements
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Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2017) | Viewed by 118707

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Thierry Bosch

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory for Analysis and Architecture of Systems, LAAS CNRS, France
Interests: laser displacement/velocity/distance sensors; biosensing; non destructive testing; vibrometry; modal analysis; bionanomechanics; vibro-acoustics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Aleksandar D. Rakić

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
Interests: laser sensing; laser feedback interferometry; dynamics of semiconductor lasers with optical feedback; terahertz imaging and spectroscopy; biomedical applications of terahertz imaging; interaction of light and tissue
Dr. Santiago Royo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Centre for Sensors, Instrumentation and Systems (CD6), Universitat Politènnica de Catalunya (UPC), Rambla Sant Nebridi 10 E08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
2. Beamagine S.L., C/Bellesguard 16 E08755 Castellbisbal, Barcelona, Spain
Interests: photonics; optics; sensors; imaging; perception; machine vision; optical engineering; optical metrology; ladar; lidar; time of flight; biomedical sensors; biophotonics; data fusion; innovation; spin-off companies; technology transfer; knowledge exchange
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Laser-based sensors measuring displacement, vibration, velocity, and distance are of ever-growing importance in very diverse fields, ranging from non-destructive testing and damage detection, to medical, life science, sustainable development, geoscience, agriculture, materials, aerospace, transport, security and manufacturing, among others.

We invite manuscripts for this forthcoming Special Issue in all aspects of research and development related to these scientific and technical areas and in all possible domains of applications. Original research articles that focus on laser-based sensor modeling, sensor design (system, hardware), sensor signal processing and associated experimental validation are welcome to highlight novel approaches, recent advancements and new application areas or solve an important problem.

Potential topics include:

  • Laser Range Finders, Laser Imaging Radar and LiDAR
  • Dimensional Control
  • Displacement and Vibration Measurement
  • Velocimetry, Anemometry, Flowmetry
  • Industrial Process Monitoring, Quality Control
  • Biosensing and Biomedical Applications
  • Modeling, Design and Evaluation of Laser Sensors
  • Propagation in Single and Multiple scattering
  • Signal Processing for Laser Sensors
  • Applications

Authors are invited to contact the Guest Editors prior to submission if they are uncertain whether their work falls within the general scope of this Special Issue.

Prof. Thierry Bosch
Prof. Aleksandar D. Rakić
Prof. Santiago Royo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (18 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

3982 KiB  
Article
Vibration Measurement Method of a String in Transversal Motion by Using a PSD
by Che-Hua Yang and Tai-Chieh Wu
Sensors 2017, 17(7), 1643; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071643 - 17 Jul 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5408
Abstract
A position sensitive detector (PSD) is frequently used for the measurement of a one-dimensional position along a line or a two-dimensional position on a plane, but is more often used for measuring static or quasi-static positions. Along with its quick response when measuring [...] Read more.
A position sensitive detector (PSD) is frequently used for the measurement of a one-dimensional position along a line or a two-dimensional position on a plane, but is more often used for measuring static or quasi-static positions. Along with its quick response when measuring short time-spans in the micro-second realm, a PSD is also capable of detecting the dynamic positions of moving objects. In this paper, theoretical modeling and experiments are conducted to explore the frequency characteristics of a vibrating string while moving transversely across a one-dimensional PSD. The theoretical predictions are supported by the experiments. When the string vibrates at its natural frequency while moving transversely, the PSD will detect two frequencies near this natural frequency; one frequency is higher than the natural frequency and the other is lower. Deviations in these two frequencies, which differ from the string’s natural frequency, increase while the speed of motion increases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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3019 KiB  
Article
In-Situ Real-Time Focus Detection during Laser Processing Using Double-Hole Masks and Advanced Image Sensor Software
by Binh Xuan Cao, Phuong Le Hoang, Sanghoon Ahn, Jeng-o Kim, Heeshin Kang and Jiwhan Noh
Sensors 2017, 17(7), 1540; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071540 - 01 Jul 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5438
Abstract
In modern high-intensity ultrafast laser processing, detecting the focal position of the working laser beam, at which the intensity is the highest and the beam diameter is the lowest, and immediately locating the target sample at that point are challenging tasks. A system [...] Read more.
In modern high-intensity ultrafast laser processing, detecting the focal position of the working laser beam, at which the intensity is the highest and the beam diameter is the lowest, and immediately locating the target sample at that point are challenging tasks. A system that allows in-situ real-time focus determination and fabrication using a high-power laser has been in high demand among both engineers and scientists. Conventional techniques require the complicated mathematical theory of wave optics, employing interference as well as diffraction phenomena to detect the focal position; however, these methods are ineffective and expensive for industrial application. Moreover, these techniques could not perform detection and fabrication simultaneously. In this paper, we propose an optical design capable of detecting the focal point and fabricating complex patterns on a planar sample surface simultaneously. In-situ real-time focus detection is performed using a bandpass filter, which only allows for the detection of laser transmission. The technique enables rapid, non-destructive, and precise detection of the focal point. Furthermore, it is sufficiently simple for application in both science and industry for mass production, and it is expected to contribute to the next generation of laser equipment, which can be used to fabricate micro-patterns with high complexity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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2182 KiB  
Article
Rapid Global Calibration Technology for Hybrid Visual Inspection System
by Tao Liu, Shibin Yin, Yin Guo and Jigui Zhu
Sensors 2017, 17(6), 1440; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17061440 - 19 Jun 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5561
Abstract
Vision-based methods for product quality inspection are playing an increasingly important role in modern industries for their good performance and high efficiency. A hybrid visual inspection system, which consists of an industrial robot with a flexible sensor and several stationary sensors, has been [...] Read more.
Vision-based methods for product quality inspection are playing an increasingly important role in modern industries for their good performance and high efficiency. A hybrid visual inspection system, which consists of an industrial robot with a flexible sensor and several stationary sensors, has been widely applied in mass production, especially in automobile manufacturing. In this paper, a rapid global calibration method for the hybrid visual inspection system is proposed. Global calibration of a flexible sensor is performed first based on the robot kinematic. Then, with the aid of the calibrated flexible sensor, stationary sensors are calibrated globally one by one based on homography. Only a standard sphere and an auxiliary target with a 2D planar pattern are applied during the system global calibration, and the calibration process can be easily re-performed during the system’s periodical maintenance. An error compensation method is proposed for the hybrid inspection system, and the final accuracy of the hybrid system is evaluated with the deviation and correlation coefficient between the measured results of the hybrid system and Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). An accuracy verification experiment shows that deviation of over 95% of featured points are less than ±0.3 mm, and the correlation coefficients of over 85% of points are larger than 0.7. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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1238 KiB  
Article
Reduction of the Influence of Laser Beam Directional Dithering in a Laser Triangulation Displacement Probe
by Hongwei Yang, Wei Tao, Zhengqi Zhang, Siwei Zhao, Xiaoqia Yin and Hui Zhao
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051126 - 15 May 2017
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7906
Abstract
Directional dithering of a laser beam potentially limits the detection accuracy of a laser triangulation displacement probe. A theoretical analysis indicates that the measurement accuracy will linearly decrease as the laser dithering angle increases. To suppress laser dithering, a scheme for reduction of [...] Read more.
Directional dithering of a laser beam potentially limits the detection accuracy of a laser triangulation displacement probe. A theoretical analysis indicates that the measurement accuracy will linearly decrease as the laser dithering angle increases. To suppress laser dithering, a scheme for reduction of the influence of laser beam directional dithering in a laser triangulation displacement probe, which consists of a collimated red laser, a laser beam pointing control setup, a receiver lens, and a charge-coupled device, is proposed in this paper. The laser beam pointing control setup is inserted into the source laser beam and the measured object and can separate the source laser beam into two symmetrical laser beams. Hence, at the angle at which the source laser beam dithers, the positional averages of the two laser spots are equal and opposite. Moreover, a virtual linear function method is used to maintain a stable average of the positions of the two spots on the imaging side. Experimental results indicate that with laser beam pointing control, the estimated standard deviation of the fitting error decreases from 0.3531 mm to 0.0100 mm , the repeatability accuracy can be lowered from ±7 mm to ±5 μ m , and the nonlinear error can be reduced from ±6 % FS (full scale) to ±0.16 % FS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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14112 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive and Highly Accurate Measurements of Crane Runways, Profiles and Fastenings
by Dirk Dennig, Johannes Bureick, Johannes Link, Dmitri Diener, Christian Hesse and Ingo Neumann
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051118 - 13 May 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 9088
Abstract
The process of surveying crane runways has been continually refined due to the competitive situation, modern surveying instruments, additional sensors, accessories and evaluation procedures. Guidelines, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 12488-1, define target values that must be determined by survey. [...] Read more.
The process of surveying crane runways has been continually refined due to the competitive situation, modern surveying instruments, additional sensors, accessories and evaluation procedures. Guidelines, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 12488-1, define target values that must be determined by survey. For a crane runway these are for example the span, the position and height of the rails. The process has to be objective and reproducible. However, common processes of surveying crane runways do not meet these requirements sufficiently. The evaluation of the protocols, ideally by an expert, requires many years of experience. Additionally, the recording of crucial parameters, e.g., the wear of the rail, or the condition of the rail fastening and rail joints, is not regulated and for that reason are often not considered during the measurement. To solve this deficit the Advanced Rail Track Inspection System (ARTIS) was developed. ARTIS is used to measure the 3D position of crane rails, the cross-section of the crane rails, joints and, for the first time, the (crane-rail) fastenings. The system consists of a monitoring vehicle and an external tracking sensor. It makes kinematic observations with the tracking sensor from outside the rail run, e.g., the floor of an overhead crane runway, possible. In this paper we present stages of the development process of ARTIS, new target values, calibration of sensors and results of a test measurement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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4166 KiB  
Article
Novel Compensation Scheme for the Modulation Gain to Suppress the Quantization-Induced Bias in a Fiber Optic Gyroscope
by Xiong Pan, Pengcheng Liu, Shaobo Zhang, Jing Jin and Ningfang Song
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040823 - 10 Apr 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4004
Abstract
A novel digital compensation scheme is demonstrated to control the gain of the modulation chain and suppress the influence of quantization error on bias. The error produced by the quantization multiplied by the scaling factor is theoretically analyzed. Simulations indicate that the quantization [...] Read more.
A novel digital compensation scheme is demonstrated to control the gain of the modulation chain and suppress the influence of quantization error on bias. The error produced by the quantization multiplied by the scaling factor is theoretically analyzed. Simulations indicate that the quantization error varies with the input angular velocity and temperature, which is verified by experiments. By switching the integration and compression operations in the modulation chain, this quantization error is reduced, while automatic reset of the digital phase ramp register is achieved. We test the scheme in a fiber optic gyroscope. The test results reveal that the quantization-induced bias is suppressed and the residual bias is two times less than the desired accuracy with data accumulated over one-second sample interval. The scheme is a feasible method to miniaturize fiber optic gyroscope using a totally digital circuit for compensation of the modulation gain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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1961 KiB  
Article
Acousto-Optic–Based Wavelength-Comb-Swept Laser for Extended Displacement Measurements
by Nam Su Park, Soo Kyung Chun, Ga-Hee Han and Chang-Seok Kim
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040740 - 31 Mar 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5280
Abstract
We demonstrate a novel wavelength-comb-swept laser based on two intra-cavity filters: an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) and a Fabry-Pérot etalon filter. The AOTF is used for the tunable selection of the output wavelength with time and the etalon filter for the narrowing of [...] Read more.
We demonstrate a novel wavelength-comb-swept laser based on two intra-cavity filters: an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) and a Fabry-Pérot etalon filter. The AOTF is used for the tunable selection of the output wavelength with time and the etalon filter for the narrowing of the spectral linewidth to extend the coherence length. Compared to the conventional wavelength-swept laser, the acousto-optic–based wavelength-comb-swept laser (WCSL) can extend the measureable range of displacement measurements by decreasing the sensitivity roll-off of the point spread function. Because the AOTF contains no mechanical moving parts to select the output wavelength acousto-optically, the WCSL source has a high wavenumber (k) linearity of R2 = 0.9999 to ensure equally spaced wavelength combs in the wavenumber domain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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2856 KiB  
Article
A Fast Measuring Method for the Inner Diameter of Coaxial Holes
by Lei Wang, Fangyun Yang, Luhua Fu, Zhong Wang, Tongyu Yang and Changjie Liu
Sensors 2017, 17(3), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17030652 - 22 Mar 2017
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6421
Abstract
A new method for fast diameter measurement of coaxial holes is studied. The paper describes a multi-layer measuring rod that installs a single laser displacement sensor (LDS) on each layer. This method is easy to implement by rotating the measuring rod, and immune [...] Read more.
A new method for fast diameter measurement of coaxial holes is studied. The paper describes a multi-layer measuring rod that installs a single laser displacement sensor (LDS) on each layer. This method is easy to implement by rotating the measuring rod, and immune from detecting the measuring rod’s rotation angles, so all diameters of coaxial holes can be calculated by sensors’ values. While revolving, the changing angles of each sensor’s laser beams are approximately equal in the rod’s radial direction so that the over-determined nonlinear equations of multi-layer holes for fitting circles can be established. The mathematical model of the measuring rod is established, all parameters that affect the accuracy of measurement are analyzed and simulated. In the experiment, the validity of the method is verified, the inner diameter measuring precision of 28 μm is achieved by 20 μm linearity LDS. The measuring rod has advantages of convenient operation and easy manufacture, according to the actual diameters of coaxial holes, and also the varying number of holes, LDS’s mounting location can be adjusted for different parts. It is convenient for rapid diameter measurement in industrial use. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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2714 KiB  
Article
Modeling Vehicle Collision Angle in Traffic Crashes Based on Three-Dimensional Laser Scanning Data
by Nengchao Lyu, Gang Huang, Chaozhong Wu, Zhicheng Duan and Pingfan Li
Sensors 2017, 17(3), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17030482 - 28 Feb 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5640
Abstract
In road traffic accidents, the analysis of a vehicle’s collision angle plays a key role in identifying a traffic accident’s form and cause. However, because accurate estimation of vehicle collision angle involves many factors, it is difficult to accurately determine it in cases [...] Read more.
In road traffic accidents, the analysis of a vehicle’s collision angle plays a key role in identifying a traffic accident’s form and cause. However, because accurate estimation of vehicle collision angle involves many factors, it is difficult to accurately determine it in cases in which less physical evidence is available and there is a lack of monitoring. This paper establishes the mathematical relation model between collision angle, deformation, and normal vector in the collision region according to the equations of particle deformation and force in Hooke’s law of classical mechanics. At the same time, the surface reconstruction method suitable for a normal vector solution is studied. Finally, the estimation model of vehicle collision angle is presented. In order to verify the correctness of the model, verification of multi-angle collision experiments and sensitivity analysis of laser scanning precision for the angle have been carried out using three-dimensional (3D) data obtained by a 3D laser scanner in the collision deformation zone. Under the conditions with which the model has been defined, validation results show that the collision angle is a result of the weighted synthesis of the normal vector of the collision point and the weight value is the deformation of the collision point corresponding to normal vectors. These conclusions prove the applicability of the model. The collision angle model proposed in this paper can be used as the theoretical basis for traffic accident identification and cause analysis. It can also be used as a theoretical reference for the study of the impact deformation of elastic materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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6014 KiB  
Article
Calibration of Laser Beam Direction for Inner Diameter Measuring Device
by Tongyu Yang, Zhong Wang, Zhengang Wu, Xingqiang Li, Lei Wang and Changjie Liu
Sensors 2017, 17(2), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17020294 - 05 Feb 2017
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7819
Abstract
The laser triangulation method is one of the most advanced methods for large inner diameter measurement. Our research group proposed a kind of inner diameter measuring device that is principally composed of three laser displacement sensors known to be fixed in the same [...] Read more.
The laser triangulation method is one of the most advanced methods for large inner diameter measurement. Our research group proposed a kind of inner diameter measuring device that is principally composed of three laser displacement sensors known to be fixed in the same plane measurement position. It is necessary to calibrate the direction of the laser beams that are emitted by laser displacement sensors because they do not meet the theoretical model accurately. For the purpose of calibrating the direction of laser beams, a calibration method and mathematical model were proposed. The inner diameter measuring device is equipped with the spindle of the machine tool. The laser beams rotate and translate in the plane and constitute the rotary rays which are driven to scan the inner surface of the ring gauge. The direction calibration of the laser beams can be completed by the sensors’ distance information and corresponding data processing method. The corresponding error sources are analyzed and the validity of the method is verified. After the calibration, the measurement error of the inner diameter measuring device reduced from ± 25 μ m to ± 15 μ m and the relative error was not more than 0.011%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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5383 KiB  
Article
Modeling and Calibration of a Novel One-Mirror Galvanometric Laser Scanner
by Chengyi Yu, Xiaobo Chen and Juntong Xi
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010164 - 15 Jan 2017
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 7686
Abstract
A laser stripe sensor has limited application when a point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the object needs to be collected, so a galvanometric laser scanner is designed by using a one-mirror galvanometer element as its mechanical device to drive [...] Read more.
A laser stripe sensor has limited application when a point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the object needs to be collected, so a galvanometric laser scanner is designed by using a one-mirror galvanometer element as its mechanical device to drive the laser stripe to sweep along the object. A novel mathematical model is derived for the proposed galvanometer laser scanner without any position assumptions and then a model-driven calibration procedure is proposed. Compared with available model-driven approaches, the influence of machining and assembly errors is considered in the proposed model. Meanwhile, a plane-constraint-based approach is proposed to extract a large number of calibration points effectively and accurately to calibrate the galvanometric laser scanner. Repeatability and accuracy of the galvanometric laser scanner are evaluated on the automobile production line to verify the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed calibration method. Experimental results show that the proposed calibration approach yields similar measurement performance compared with a look-up table calibration method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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3032 KiB  
Article
Features of a Self-Mixing Laser Diode Operating Near Relaxation Oscillation
by Bin Liu, Yanguang Yu, Jiangtao Xi, Yuanlong Fan, Qinghua Guo, Jun Tong and Roger A. Lewis
Sensors 2016, 16(9), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16091546 - 21 Sep 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5990
Abstract
When a fraction of the light reflected by an external cavity re-enters the laser cavity, both the amplitude and the frequency of the lasing field can be modulated. This phenomenon is called the self-mixing effect (SME). A self-mixing laser diode (SM-LD) is a [...] Read more.
When a fraction of the light reflected by an external cavity re-enters the laser cavity, both the amplitude and the frequency of the lasing field can be modulated. This phenomenon is called the self-mixing effect (SME). A self-mixing laser diode (SM-LD) is a sensor using the SME. Usually, such LDs operate below the stability boundary where no relaxation oscillation happens. The boundary is determined by the operation condition including the injection current, optical feedback strength and external cavity length. This paper discovers the features of an SM-LD where the LD operates beyond the stability boundary, that is, near the relaxation oscillation (RO) status. We call the signals from such a SM-LD as RO-SM signals to differentiate them from the conventional SM signals reported in the literature. Firstly, simulations are made based on the well-known Lang and Kobayashi (L-K) equations. Then the experiments are conducted on different LDs to verify the simulation results. It shows that a RO-SM signal exhibits high frequency oscillation with its amplitude modulated by a slow time varying envelop which corresponds to the movement of the external target. The envelope has same fringe structure (half-wavelength displacement resolution) with the conventional SM signals. However, the amplitudes of the RO-SM signals are much higher compared to conventional SM signals. The results presented reveal that an SM-LD operating near the RO has potential for achieving sensing with improved sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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4050 KiB  
Article
A Laser Line Auto-Scanning System for Underwater 3D Reconstruction
by Shukai Chi, Zexiao Xie and Wenzhu Chen
Sensors 2016, 16(9), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16091534 - 20 Sep 2016
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 9266
Abstract
In this study, a laser line auto-scanning system was designed to perform underwater close-range 3D reconstructions with high accuracy and resolution. The system changes the laser plane direction with a galvanometer to perform automatic scanning and obtain continuous laser strips for underwater 3D [...] Read more.
In this study, a laser line auto-scanning system was designed to perform underwater close-range 3D reconstructions with high accuracy and resolution. The system changes the laser plane direction with a galvanometer to perform automatic scanning and obtain continuous laser strips for underwater 3D reconstruction. The system parameters were calibrated with the homography constraints between the target plane and image plane. A cost function was defined to optimize the galvanometer’s rotating axis equation. Compensation was carried out for the refraction of the incident and emitted light at the interface. The accuracy and the spatial measurement capability of the system were tested and analyzed with standard balls under laboratory underwater conditions, and the 3D surface reconstruction for a sealing cover of an underwater instrument was proved to be satisfactory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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1375 KiB  
Article
Concurrent Reflectance Confocal Microscopy and Laser Doppler Flowmetry to Improve Skin Cancer Imaging: A Monte Carlo Model and Experimental Validation
by Alireza Mowla, Thomas Taimre, Yah Leng Lim, Karl Bertling, Stephen J. Wilson, Tarl W. Prow, H. Peter Soyer and Aleksandar D. Rakić
Sensors 2016, 16(9), 1411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16091411 - 01 Sep 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6711
Abstract
Optical interrogation of suspicious skin lesions is standard care in the management of skin cancer worldwide. Morphological and functional markers of malignancy are often combined to improve expert human diagnostic power. We propose the evaluation of the combination of two independent optical biomarkers [...] Read more.
Optical interrogation of suspicious skin lesions is standard care in the management of skin cancer worldwide. Morphological and functional markers of malignancy are often combined to improve expert human diagnostic power. We propose the evaluation of the combination of two independent optical biomarkers of skin tumours concurrently. The morphological modality of reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) is combined with the functional modality of laser Doppler flowmetry, which is capable of quantifying tissue perfusion. To realize the idea, we propose laser feedback interferometry as an implementation of RCM, which is able to detect the Doppler signal in addition to the confocal reflectance signal. Based on the proposed technique, we study numerical models of skin tissue incorporating two optical biomarkers of malignancy: (i) abnormal red blood cell velocities and concentrations and (ii) anomalous optical properties manifested through tissue confocal reflectance, using Monte Carlo simulation. We also conduct a laboratory experiment on a microfluidic channel containing a dynamic turbid medium, to validate the efficacy of the technique. We quantify the performance of the technique by examining a signal to background ratio (SBR) in both the numerical and experimental models, and it is shown that both simulated and experimental SBRs improve consistently using this technique. This work indicates the feasibility of an optical instrument, which may have a role in enhanced imaging of skin malignancies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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2145 KiB  
Communication
Using a Hexagonal Mirror for Varying Light Intensity in the Measurement of Small-Angle Variation
by Meng-Chang Hsieh, Jiun-You Lin and Chia-Ou Chang
Sensors 2016, 16(8), 1301; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16081301 - 16 Aug 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4803
Abstract
Precision positioning and control are critical to industrial-use processing machines. In order to have components fabricated with excellent precision, the measurement of small-angle variations must be as accurate as possible. To achieve this goal, this study provides a new and simple optical mechanism [...] Read more.
Precision positioning and control are critical to industrial-use processing machines. In order to have components fabricated with excellent precision, the measurement of small-angle variations must be as accurate as possible. To achieve this goal, this study provides a new and simple optical mechanism by varying light intensity. A He-Ne laser beam was passed through an attenuator and into a beam splitter. The reflected light was used as an intensity reference for calibrating the measurement. The transmitted light as a test light entered the optical mechanism hexagonal mirror, the optical mechanism of which was created by us, and then it entered the power detector after four consecutive reflections inside the mirror. When the hexagonal mirror was rotated by a small angle, the laser beam was parallel shifted. Once the laser beam was shifted, the hitting area on the detector was changed; it might be partially outside the sensing zone and would cause the variation of detection intensity. This variation of light intensity can be employed to measure small-angle variations. The experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of this method. The resolution and sensitivity are 3 × 10−40 and 4 mW/° in the angular range of 0.6°, respectively, and 9.3 × 10−50 and 13 mW/° in the angular range of 0.25°. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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Review

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5615 KiB  
Review
Current Research in Lidar Technology Used for the Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Aerosols
by Adolfo Comerón, Constantino Muñoz-Porcar, Francesc Rocadenbosch, Alejandro Rodríguez-Gómez and Michaël Sicard
Sensors 2017, 17(6), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17061450 - 20 Jun 2017
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 12110
Abstract
Lidars are active optical remote sensing instruments with unique capabilities for atmospheric sounding. A manifold of atmospheric variables can be profiled using different types of lidar: concentration of species, wind speed, temperature, etc. Among them, measurement of the properties of aerosol particles, whose [...] Read more.
Lidars are active optical remote sensing instruments with unique capabilities for atmospheric sounding. A manifold of atmospheric variables can be profiled using different types of lidar: concentration of species, wind speed, temperature, etc. Among them, measurement of the properties of aerosol particles, whose influence in many atmospheric processes is important but is still poorly stated, stands as one of the main fields of application of current lidar systems. This paper presents a review on fundamentals, technology, methodologies and state-of-the art of the lidar systems used to obtain aerosol information. Retrieval of structural (aerosol layers profiling), optical (backscatter and extinction coefficients) and microphysical (size, shape and type) properties requires however different levels of instrumental complexity; this general outlook is structured following a classification that attends these criteria. Thus, elastic systems (detection only of emitted frequencies), Raman systems (detection also of Raman frequency-shifted spectral lines), high spectral resolution lidars, systems with depolarization measurement capabilities and multi-wavelength instruments are described, and the fundamentals in which the retrieval of aerosol parameters is based is in each case detailed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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2766 KiB  
Technical Note
Development of a New, High Sensitivity 2000 kg Mechanical Balance
by Jian Wang
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040851 - 13 Apr 2017
Viewed by 3170
Abstract
Mass measurement of more than 500 kg on an electronic mass comparator has no better repeatability and linearity of measurement for meeting the calibration requirement of over class F1 weights from pharmacy and power generation plants. For this purpose, a new 2000 kg [...] Read more.
Mass measurement of more than 500 kg on an electronic mass comparator has no better repeatability and linearity of measurement for meeting the calibration requirement of over class F1 weights from pharmacy and power generation plants. For this purpose, a new 2000 kg mechanical balance was developed by the National Institute of Metrology (NIM). The advantages of measurement of more than 500 kg on a new 2000 kg mechanical balance are introduced in the paper. In order to obtain high measurement uncertainty, four vertical forces of two sides of beam are measured and used as reference for adjustment of the beam position. Laser displacement sensors in the indication system are more effective for decreasing reading errors caused by human vision. To improve the repeatability and sensitivity of the equipment, a synchronous lifting control is designed for synchronously lifting the beam ends along the vertical direction. A counterweight selection system is developed to get any combination of weights in a limited space. The sensitivity of the new mechanical balance for 2000 kg is more than 1.7 parts in 10−4 rad/g. The extended uncertainties for the mechanical balance of 500 kg, 1000 kg and 2000 kg are 0.47 g, 1.8 g and 3.5 g respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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3839 KiB  
Technical Note
Optical Tip Clearance Measurements as a Tool for Rotating Disk Characterization
by Iker García, Joseba Zubia, Josu Beloki, Jon Arrue, Gaizka Durana and Gotzon Aldabaldetreku
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010165 - 15 Jan 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4534
Abstract
An experimental investigation on the vibrational behavior of a rotating disk by means of three optical fiber sensors is presented. The disk, which is a scale model of the real disk of an aircraft engine, was assembled in a wind tunnel in order [...] Read more.
An experimental investigation on the vibrational behavior of a rotating disk by means of three optical fiber sensors is presented. The disk, which is a scale model of the real disk of an aircraft engine, was assembled in a wind tunnel in order to simulate real operation conditions. The pressure difference between the upstream and downstream sides of the disk causes an airflow that might force the disk to vibrate. To characterize this vibration, a set of parameters was determined by measuring the tip clearance of the disk: the amplitude, the frequency and the number of nodal diameters in the disk. All this information allowed the design of an upgraded prototype of the disk, whose performance was also characterized by the same method. An optical system was employed for the measurements, in combination with a strain gauge mounted on the disk surface, which served to confirm the results obtained. The data of the strain gauge coincided closely with those provided by the optical fiber sensors, thus demonstrating the suitability of this innovative technique to evaluate the vibrational behavior of rotating disks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Sensors for Displacement, Distance, Flow, Velocity and Vibrations Measurements)
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